<p>Te Koko-o-Kupe / Cloudy Bay is located at the northeast of New Zealand&#39;s South Island, to the south of the Marlborough Sounds and north of Clifford Bay. In August 2014, the name Cloudy Bay, given by Captain Cook in 1770, was officially altered to Te Koko-o-Kupe / Cloudy Bay, with the Māori name recalling the early explorer Kupe scooping up oysters from the bay.</p><br>
<p>The area lends its name to one of the best known New World white wines (Cloudy Bay Vineyards Sauvignon Blanc) although the grapes used in production of that wine are grown in the Marlborough wine region further inland.</p><br>
<p>The bay faces Cook Strait, stretching north-south over a distance of 30 km from the southern extremity of the Marlborough Sounds (Port Underwood) to White Bluffs. Along its length is the delta of the Wairau River, which reaches the sea at two points. The southern of these forms an entrance to the Big Lagoon, just to the north of White Bluffs. The central point is known as the Wairau Diversion. There is also a popular swimming beach to the north known as Whites Bay.</p><br>
<p>Fifteen minutes drive from central Blenheim is Cloudy Bays&#39; beautiful and picturesque coastal community of Rarangi which consists of an original beachfront settlement in the northern end of Cloudy Bay which ranges from the typical New Zealand bach or crib along with some high quality homes. It also has a newer large subdivision consisting of high quality homes within the central part of Cloudy Bay nearer to the coastal man-made river which is known as the Wairau Diversion. This subdivision includes high quality homes along the beachfront and also includes inland housing areas.</p><br>
<p>Archaeological excavations at Wairau Bar indicate that Māori were living there in the moa-hunter period about 1288 to 1300 for a period of about 20 years. This is the oldest and best researched site of early Polynesian settlement in New Zealand. Cloudy Bay was named by Captain James Cook on 7 February 1770. Sealers first visited about 1826 and set up stations at Port Underwood, the deep inlet at the north of the bay. It was being transported around the New Zealand coast by the Herald.</p><br>
<p>Clifford Bay is a bay in the northeast of the South Island of New Zealand, in the Marlborough Region. It lies between Cloudy Bay to the northwest, and Cape Campbell. The bay&#39;s most notable feature is the solar salt extraction works at Lake Grassmere, close to the southern end of the bay.</p><br>
<p>Since the 1920s, there have been various proposals for an inter-island port and ferry terminal to replace Picton. However, such plans never proceeded beyond an investigation stage, often due to the capital costs. In May 2011, plans were announced to revisit the development of a port at Clifford Bay, using a mix of private and public funding. Such a port would reduce both sailing time across the Cook Strait from Wellington and the surface distance to Christchurch. It would also allow ferries to operate at higher speeds than they can in the ecologically sensitive Marlborough Sounds and remove the steep grades on the railway line that leads out of Picton.</p><br>
<p>While a new port at Clifford Bay would have affected the economy of Picton, there were positive options to refocus Picton as a tourist centre, and the gateway to the Marlborough Sounds.</p><br>
<p>In November 2013, the Government announced it would not be building a new port at Clifford Bay, putting an end to two years of speculation.</p><br>
<p>The Lichfield Canal Aqueduct is a potentially navigable aqueduct built to carry the future Lichfield Canal over the M6 Toll Motorway, just to the west of Lichfield and north of Birmingham, England.</p><br>
<p>The Lichfield Canal (originally part of the Wyrley and Essington Canal) is currently being restored. Restoration was threatened by the construction of the M6 Toll motorway around the north of Birmingham, which cut across the canal&#39;s route. Funds were raised to build an aqueduct to carry the canal over the motorway, with the aqueduct being installed on 15/16 August 2003, but the canal has yet to reach it, giving it an odd appearance.</p><br>
<p>In 2014/2015 Lichfield and Hatherton Canals Restoration Trust received a Social Investment Business (SIB) grant of £336,000 which will enable the Trust to buy land on either side of the aqueduct and carry out the necessary work to rebuild the canal to bring the aqueduct into use.</p><br>
<p>In April 2015, Midland Expressway Limited donated £50,000 to Lichfield and Hatherton Canals Restoration Trust to honour an undertaking they made when the M6 Toll Motorway was built. The donation is a "substantial contribution" towards the cost of reinstating the Crane Brook Culvert which was removed when the motorway was built.</p><br>
<p>Lake Grassmere / Kapara Te Hau is a New Zealand lake in the northeastern South Island, close to Cook Strait. The lake is used for the production of salt.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Lake Grassmere, 25 mi south of Blenheim and 6 mi south of the mouth of the Awatere River, is a shallow lagoon protected from the open sea by a single barrier beach covered by sand dunes. It is on the north-easterly extension of the Ward depression.</p><br>
<p>Covering an area of 17 km&sup2, it has no natural inflow and is prone to strong warm winds. Close to the sea, it also has a very high salinity.</p><br>
<p>Because of these geographical characteristics, it is ideal for natural salt extraction. Grassmere has been divided into solar evaporation ponds. Seawater is pumped in, and moved between ponds over several months, increasing in salinity with each successive evaporation period. As salinity increases, crystallised salt forms and is extracted.</p><br>
<p>Grassmere&#39;s area varies between 3,500 and; this maximum is attained only in rare floods. The watershed is small. The climate, with a low average rainfall of 585 mm and prevailing strong and dry north-westerly winds, provides Lake Grassmere with the suitable conditions required for natural economic salt production.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<p>The Māori name for the lake is Kapara Te Hau ("wind-blown lake"). Early whalers on the coast rendered this name “Cobblers&#39; Hole”.</p><br>
<p>According to Māori oral tradition, the lake occupies the site of early cultivations. Kupe, the navigator, is said to have poured salt water on these cultivations, thus creating the lake.</p><br>
<p>In pre-European times it was used as a ready source of food, as it attracts a wide range of waterfowl.</p><br>
<p>In 1832–33, a year after Ngāti Toa under the leadership of Te Rauparaha had defeated Ngāi Tahu at Kaiapoi and Banks Peninsula, Ngāti Toa visited the lake to take moulting ducks. A Ngāi Tahu force, having learned of this impending visit, laid an ambush. Scouts from Te Rauparaha&#39;s party found the locality apparently uninhabited and the canoes were driven ashore. On landing, the visitors were taken by surprise and sustained heavy casualties. Te Rauparaha was seized by Tūhawaiki, who was anxious to take him alive. The captive, however, after feigning resignation, was less tightly held. He then slipped out of his flax garment, swam to a canoe and made his escape.</p><br>
<h2>Salt industry</h2><br>
<p>Until the 1940s Grassmere&#39;s bed was a mud bath in winter and a dustbowl in summer, with the occasional natural deposit of salt.</p><br>
<p>The salt industry began in 1943 and now occupies one-third of the suitable lake area of 3,800 acre. The 1960 production was 17,000 tons.</p><br>
<p>The total consumption of industrial and domestic salt in New Zealand in 1960 was about 61,000 tons.</p><br>
<p>Maximum expansion could produce 50,000 tons, and many economic by-products can be developed; caustic soda and gypsum are already produced in small quantities.</p><br>
<p>In 2005 Lake Grassmere provided about half of New Zealand&#39;s domestic salt requirements.</p><br>
<p>In addition to low rainfall, Grassmere is perfectly suited to solar salt production.</p><br>
<p>The large area of flat land that makes up the lake bed is near the sea so it can draw in salt water, and away from large rivers.</p><br>
<p>High evaporation from sun and wind occurs during summer, and the site has ready access to both sea and rail transport.</p><br>
<p>In the mid 1960s harvests were carried out with a new pattern of crystallising ponds which have special provision for draining off rainwater before it has had time to mix with the brine concentrate.</p><br>
<p>The harvest for 1964–65 reached 30,000 tons, a record at the time.</p><br>
<p>By 1970 the harvest had increased to almost 52,000 tonnes, but this could not match demand, which had grown with industrial development (especially from freezing works and pulp and paper mills). It became evident that Grassmere could not meet New Zealand&#39;s salt requirements.</p><br>
<p>Bulk shipments of salt from the Caribbean and Australia were landed at Mt Maunganui, where a vacuum salt plant was built. This produced the high-purity salt needed by producers in the dairy and pharmaceutical industries. A second, smaller vacuum plant was built at Grassmere.</p><br>
<p>Some rolling stock from the railway at Grassmere salt works is preserved at the Ferrymead Two Foot Railway.</p><br>
<h2>Economics</h2><br>
<p>A large range of salts with slightly different chemical compositions, grain sizes and shapes are produced at Lake Grassmere. All table salt produced in New Zealand is solar salt, and both iodised and non-iodised table salt are available.</p><br>
<p>Iodised salt contains added iodine (to prevent goitre) and silicon dioxide (to make the salt run). Specialty salts, including flaky salt, are also produced at Lake Grassmere.</p><br>
<p>Animal health products such as salt licks for farm animals are produced at Grassmere and Mt Maunganui.</p><br>
<p>At the end of summer Grassmere&#39;s gleaming white salt piles are easily seen from State Highway 1. This seasonal landmark forms a vivid contrast to the burnt brown of the Marlborough hills.</p><br>
<h2>Seismic activity</h2><br>
<p>A fault running underneath Lake Grassmere triggered a magnitude 6.6 earthquake on Friday, August 16, 2013 at 2:31:05 pm. The quake was 8 km deep and was strike-slip fault similar to the 2013 Seddon earthquake on July 21, thus considered a doublet earthquake.</p><br>
<h2>Official name</h2><br>
<p>The official name of the lake become a dual name as a result of the Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998.</p><br>
<p>The Churchill Mountains are a mountain range group of the Transantarctic Mountains System, located in the Ross Dependency region of Antarctica. They border on the western side of the Ross Ice Shelf, between Byrd Glacier and Nimrod Glacier.</p><br>
<p>Several of the range&#39;s highest summits, including Mounts Egerton, Field, Nares, Wharton, and Albert Markham were first seen and named by the Discovery Expedition of 1901–1904 (aka: British National Antarctic Expedition), under Robert Falcon Scott</p><br>
<p>The mountains were mapped in detail by the USGS from Tellurometer surveys during 1960–61, and by USA Navy air photos in 1960.</p><br>
<p>They were named by the US-ACAN for Sir Winston Churchill.</p><br>
<h2>Mountains and peaks</h2><br>
<p>Mount Albert Markham is a striking flat-topped mountain, standing midway between Mount Nares and Pyramid Mountain. Discovered by the Discovery Expedition and named for Admiral Sir Albert Hastings Markham, a member of the Ship Committee for the expedition.</p><br>
<p>Mount Egerton is a mountain rising five km north-northwest of Mount Field. Discovered by the Discovery Expedition and named for Admiral Sir George Le Clerc Egerton, a member of the Arctic Expedition of 1875-1876, one of Scott&#39;s advisors for this expedition.</p><br>
<p>Mount Field is a mountain standing 5 km SSE of Mount Egerton. Discovered and named by the Discovery Expedition.</p><br>
<p>Mount Frost is a mountain standing 4 mi S of Mount Zinkovich, at the southern side of the head of Silk Glacier. Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) for Lieutenant Col. Foy B. Frost, USAF, commanding officer of the Ninth Troop Carrier Squadron, which furnished C-124 Globemaster airlift support between New Zealand and the Antarctic and from McMurdo Sound inland to Byrd, Eights, and South Pole Stations during USA Navy (USN) Operation Deep Freeze 1962.</p><br>
<p>Mount Hamilton stands at the eastern edge of Kent Plateau, 11 km south of Mount Tuatara. Discovered by the Discovery Expedition and named for Admiral Sir Richard Vesey Hamilton, who served on Arctic voyages (1850–54) and was a member of the Ship Committee for this expedition.</p><br>
<p>Mount Nares is a massive mountain located just south of Mount Albert Markham and overlooking the head of Flynn Glacier. Discovered by the Discovery Expedition led by Scott, who named it for Sir George S. Nares, captain of an Arctic expedition in 1875-76, and a member of the Ship Committee for Scott&#39;s expedition.</p><br>
<p>Pyramid Mountain is a conspicuous pyramidal mountain standing 4 mi N of Mount Albert Markham. Discovered and named by the Discovery Expedition.</p><br>
<p>Mount Tuatara is a mountain standing on the southern side of Byrd Glacier, 7 mi N of Mount Hamilton. Mapped by the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition (NZGSAE) (1960–61) who so named it because the long spiny summit ridge resembles a lizard. The Tuatara is a reptile endemic to New Zealand.</p><br>
<p>Turk Peak is a large hump-shaped peak being the central of three peaks on a ridge 6 mi N of Mount Zinkovich. Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) for Lieutenant Col. Wilbert Turk, commander of the 61st Troop Carrier Squadron which initiated the flights of C-130 Hercules aircraft in Antarctica in January 1960.</p><br>
<p>Mount Wharton is a mountain standing 8.8 km (5.5 mi) west of Turk Peak. Discovered by the Discovery Expedition and named for Sir William Wharton, Hydrographer to the Royal Navy, 1884-1904.</p><br>
<p>Young Peaks is a group of peaks along a ridge running west-east, starting 5 km east of Mount Coley. The feature is 5 km long with summits rising above 1200 m. Flanked by Lee Glacier at north and Jorda Glacier at south. Named in honor of Pamela Young who was the first female event member in the New Zealand Antarctic Research Program (NZARP).</p><br>
<p>Mount Zinkovich is a pointed mountain standing 4 miles (6 km) north of Mount Frost at the north side of the head of Silk Glacier. Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) for Lieutenant Colonel Michael Zinkovich, United States Air Force (USAF), commanding officer of the 1710th Aerial Port Squadron, which furnished airlift support between New Zealand and Antarctica, and from McMurdo Sound inland to Byrd, Eights, and South Pole Stations during USA Navy Operation Deep Freeze 1962.</p><br>
<h2>Sub−ranges</h2><br>
<p>Sub−ranges of the Churchill Mountains include:</p><br>
<h3>Other features</h3><br>
<p>Ahern Glacier</p><br>
<p>Algie Knoll</p><br>
<p>Alligator Eyes</p><br>
<p>Black Icefalls</p><br>
<p>Bradshaw Peak</p><br>
<p>Brecher Glacier</p><br>
<p>Byrd Glacier</p><br>
<p>Carlstrom Foothills</p><br>
<p>Carr Crest</p><br>
<p>Cerberus Peak</p><br>
<p>Chapman Snowfield</p><br>
<p>Cooper Snowfield</p><br>
<p>Cupcake Peaks</p><br>
<p>Donnally Glacier</p><br>
<p>East Egerton</p><br>
<p>Elder Peak</p><br>
<p>Entrikin Glacier</p><br>
<p>Festive Plateau</p><br>
<p>Flynn Glacier</p><br>
<p>Gamble Glacier</p><br>
<p>Horseshoe Nunatak</p><br>
<p>Jorda Glacier</p><br>
<p>Keating Massif</p><br>
<p>Kelly Plateau</p><br>
<p>Kent Plateau</p><br>
<p>Kilroy Bluff</p><br>
<p>Kiwi Pass</p><br>
<p>Lee Glacier</p><br>
<p>Mansergh Wall</p><br>
<p>McLay Glacier</p><br>
<p>Miscast Nunataks</p><br>
<p>Mount Coley</p><br>
<p>Mount Durnford</p><br>
<p>Mount Frost</p><br>
<p>Mount Hubble</p><br>
<p>Mount Liard</p><br>
<p>Mount Massam</p><br>
<p>Mount Moa</p><br>
<p>Mount Morse</p><br>
<p>Nimrod Glacier</p><br>
<p>Peacock Heights</p><br>
<p>Prior Cliff</p><br>
<p>Reid Bluff</p><br>
<p>Roberts Pike</p><br>
<p>Rutland Nunatak</p><br>
<p>Silk Glacier</p><br>
<p>Sivjee Glacier</p><br>
<p>Sleek Spur</p><br>
<p>Soza Icefalls</p><br>
<p>Stark Ridge</p><br>
<p>Swithinbank Range</p><br>
<p>Taniwha Cove</p><br>
<p>Tapuae-o-Uenuku, formerly Mount Tapuaenuku, is the highest peak in the northeast of New Zealand&#39;s South Island. The name translates from Māori as "footprint of the rainbow", though is usually regarded as being named after Chief Tapuaenuku.</p><br>
<p>At 2,885 m it is the highest mountain in New Zealand outside the main ranges of the Southern Alps, and over 80 metres taller than the tallest peak on the North Island.</p><br>
<p>It dominates the Inland Kaikoura Range, rising high above the valleys of the Clarence and Awatere Rivers. It can be seen from as far away as the Kapiti Coast on the North Island, nearly 165 kilometres away, and is a prominent point on the horizon for travellers on the interisland ferries that ply Cook Strait.</p><br>
<p>The first European to sight the mountain was James Cook, who called it Mount Odin, but later nicknamed it "The Watcher" since his ship seemed to be visible from it at so many points along the coast. The first Europeans to attempt to climb the mountain were Edward John Eyre, Lieutenant-Governor of New Munster, and William John Warburton Hamilton, in 1849. They came within a short distance of the summit but were forced to turn back.</p><br>
<p>The Kaikoura Peninsula is located in the northeast of New Zealand&#39;s South Island. It protrudes five kilometres into the Pacific Ocean. The town of Kaikoura is located on the north shore of the peninsula. The peninsula has been settled by Maori for approximately 1000 years, and by Europeans since the 1800s, when whaling operations began off the Kaikoura Coast. Since the end of whaling in 1922 whales have been allowed to thrive and the region is now a popular whale watching destination.</p><br>
<p>The Kaikoura Peninsula is made up of limestone and mudstone which have been deposited, uplifted and deformed throughout the Quaternary. The peninsula is situated in a tectonically active region bounded by the Marlborough Fault System.</p><br>
<p>The Kaikoura Canyon is a submarine canyon situated 500 metres off the coast to the south-east of the peninsula. It is 60 km long, up to 1200 m deep, and is generally U-shaped. It is an active canyon that merges into a deep-ocean channel system that meanders for hundreds of kilometres across the deep ocean floor.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The peninsula has been inhabited by Māori for the best part of 1000 years. They used it as a base for hunting moa, and also harvested the plentiful crayfish which are found along the shore. In legend, it was from this peninsula that legendary hero Māui is reputed to have dredged up the giant fish that became the North Island.</p><br>
<p>During the 19th century, European whaling stations were established in the area. In more recent times, the whales that visit the coast off the peninsula have been allowed to thrive, and whale-watching makes the area a popular ecotourism destination. Whales frequent these coastal waters because squid and other deep-sea creatures are brought from the deep Hikurangi Trench to the surface by the combination currents and steeply sloping seafloor.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and geomorphology</h2><br>
<p>The Kaikoura Peninsula is located on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand. Geologically the peninsula consists of an asymmetrical anticline bounded on either side by two synclines, the axis of which strikes northeast–southwest. The peninsula is made up of two different types of sedimentary rocks, the Amuri Limestone of Palaeocene age and Oligocene aged mudstone. Intense folding and minor faulting have occurred, particularly in the limestone area. Shore platforms are developed in both lithological units, those in limestone displaying wider variability in morphology. The multi-level terraces were once wave-cut platforms, created at sea level and uplifted out of the sea by tectonic processes, at which point the next step would be cut. In the landscape they appear as a flight of terraces with the oldest appearing at the top and the youngest at the shoreline where the Kaikoura township is situated.</p><br>
<p>The shoreline of the Kaikoura Peninsula is exposed to an extremely long fetch from the Pacific Ocean, and it is also characterized as a high-energy oceanic swell environment, with high-energy storms interrupting long periods of relative calm. High-energy storms due to the passage of cyclonic depressions over New Zealand can occur at any time of the year. The Kaikoura Coast is mesotidal with a mean range of 1.36 m and a maximum of 2.57 m. The region has a temperate climate with moderate rainfall, averaging 865 mm per year and mean monthly temperatures range from 7.7° Celsius in July to 16.2° Celsius in January.</p><br>
<p>The Kaikoura Peninsula environment is subject to highly energetic processes in terms of both marine and weathering processes. Shore platforms are exposed to the dominant wave directions and are in the intertidal zone. Consequently, both marine erosive forces and subaerial weathering processes contribute to erosion. Shore platforms range from 40 m to over 200 m wide and are cut in Tertiary mudstones and limestones.</p><br>
<p>Tectonic uplift of the peninsula is estimated to be in the order of 100 metres during the Quaternary and 2 metres during the last 1000 years. The shore platforms are therefore clearly polycyclic and contain inherent morphological features but are being actively rejuvenated by the removal of cover deposits.</p><br>
<p>Four main phases of tectonic activity are identified for the last 5–6000 years. These involve changing tectonic-eustatic levels, platform processes and erosional episodes in the hinterland. Consequently, the platforms are rapidly evolving features which reflect both contemporary processes and recent tectonic history.</p><br>
<h2>Kaikoura Canyon</h2><br>
<p>The Kaikoura Canyon is a submarine canyon located southwest of the Kaikoura Peninsula off the northeastern coast of the South Island. It is 60 km long, up to 1200 m deep, and is generally U-shaped. It is an active canyon that merges into a deep ocean channel system that meanders for hundreds of kilometres across the deep ocean floor. It is the main sediment source of the 1500 km long Hikurangi Channel, which supplies turbidites to the Hikurangi Trough, as well as to low parts of the oceanic Hikurangi Plateau, and to the edge of the southwest Pacific Basin. It is deeply incised into the narrow, tectonically active, continental margin. It is thought to be the sink for the coastal sediment transport system that carries large amounts of erosional debris northwards up the coast from the rivers draining the tectonically active mountains of the South Island.</p><br>
<h3>Landslide tsunami hazard</h3><br>
<p>There is a known risk of an earthquake-triggered tsunami resulting from the displacement of sediment accumulating at the mouth of the canyon. Sediment consisting of fine sand and silt is being deposited at the head of the Kaikoura Canyon with an estimated total volume of 0.24 cubic kilometres accumulated. A near-field tsunami caused by the displacement of this sediment poses a significant threat to the surrounding area, especially coastal infrastructure such as roads and houses.</p><br>
<p>Historical accounts of canyon-related tsunami in this region are uncertain. Geological evidence is also limited, and no palaeotsunami specific studies have been carried out to date. However, in archaeological literature, there are some possible indications of past marine inundation events. Marine sediments can be seen to overlie an historical Maori occupation site on Seddons Ridge, near South Bay. These deposits indicate that marine inundation occurred sometime within the last 150–200 years. Seddons Ridge is an uplifted beach ridge and has a long history of Maori settlement. An older village site dating from approximately 650 years before present, situated approximately 350 metres from the shoreline, contains reworked oven stones which are overlain by marine overwash deposits. Without accompanying reliable geological data, this kind of archaeological evidence is only circumstantial. However it does indicate that the ocean has inundated past coastal settlements in the region as a result of a severe storm surge or tsunami.</p><br>
<p>Rapidly accumulating sandy sediment on a steep slope, in an active tectonic region, is likely to be susceptible to failure during moderately large earthquakes. Strong ground shaking associated with rupture on nearby faults can be expected to reduce the shear strength of the sandy sediment deposit at the Canyon Head and may trigger mass failures. It is estimated that an earthquake magnitude 8 on the Richter magnitude scale or shaking equivalent to V (Moderate) on the Mercalli intensity scale would be enough to trigger such an event. The Kaikoura Region is adjacent to the Marlborough fault zone. There are a number of faults in this area predicted to have the capacity to produce such an event. The most likely are the Hope Fault, previously New Zealand&#39;s most active fault, and the larger Alpine Fault. The lesser-known Hundalee Fault also terminates near the Kaikoura coast, and although it is not as large as other faults in the area, it still has the potential to trigger a submarine landslide event. The return period for major magnitude 8 or intensity V earthquakes at Kaikoura has been estimated to be in the order of 150 years based on what is known about the return time of earthquake events for regional faults in the Kaikoura area.</p><br>
<p>There is evidence of past failures in similar deposits in the Kaikoura Canyon, in the presence of numerous sand and gravel turbidite deposits in cores taken from the canyon axis. Ground acceleration with a peak of 0.44 g is estimated at the Kaikoura township for a return period of 150 years. There have been no large seismic events centered close to Kaikoura since written records of the area began in about 1840 AD, but lichen-dating of rock-falls suggests that there may have been a major earthquake in the vicinity 175 years ago. This correlates with the estimated amount of time it would have taken to accumulate the present sediment deposits seen at the canyon head. Therefore, the conclusion can be drawn that sediment in the canyon head gully failed and flowed down the canyon as a major turbidity current released by this earthquake.</p><br>
<p>A landslide-generated tsunami represents a large potential hazard to the area from South Bay to Oaro. An extreme event has been modelled incorporating failure of the entire landslide mass identified by. These simulations indicate the potential for large tsunami runup heights along this section of coast. The effects could be more severe here if such an event coincided with storm activity or high tides.</p><br>
<p>It is estimated to take approximately a century to accumulate enough sediment in the canyon head to generate a major mass failure. Therefore, there is already enough sediment to pose a significant hazard. Evidence of tensional cracks at the head of the modern deposit indicate that it is likely to fail as a result of shaking associated with a major earthquake. Failure would result in the collapse of an estimated quarter of a cubic kilometre of unconsolidated sediment.</p><br>
<p>The canyon-head gully of the Kaikoura Canyon faces northwards, obliquely towards the shore. Consequently, the initial motion of a debris avalanche in the gully, and the resulting tsunami, is towards the shore of South Bay and the southern side of the Kaikoura Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>The Commonwealth Range is a north-south trending range of rugged mountains, 144 km long, located within the Queen Maud Mountains on the Dufek Coast of the continent of Antarctica. The range borders the eastern side of Beardmore Glacier from the Ross Ice Shelf to Keltie Glacier.</p><br>
<p>The range was discovered by the British Antarctic Expedition (1907–09) and named by the expedition after the Commonwealth of Australia, which gave much assistance to the expedition.</p><br>
<h2>Key features</h2><br>
<p>Its highest peak is Flat Top at 4000 meters or 13,123 feet. Other peaks within the range include:</p><br>
<p>Mount Donaldson – 3,930 m</p><br>
<p>Mount Macdonald – 3,630 m</p><br>
<p>Mount Hermanson – 3,140 m</p><br>
<p>Mount Deakin – 2,810 m</p><br>
<p>Gray Peak – 2,570 m</p><br>
<p>Flat Top&#39;s next highest neighbor is the massive Mount Kaplan 39 km to the east-northeast.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>Geographical features include:</p><br>
<p>Airdrop Peak</p><br>
<p>Beardmore Glacier</p><br>
<p>Beetle Spur</p><br>
<p>Celebration Pass</p><br>
<p>Dolphin Spur</p><br>
<p>Ebony Ridge</p><br>
<p>Flat Top</p><br>
<p>Hood Glacier</p><br>
<p>Keltie Glacier</p><br>
<p>Lands End Nunataks</p><br>
<p>Ludeman Glacier</p><br>
<p>Mount Cyril</p><br>
<p>Mount Donaldson</p><br>
<p>Mount Henry</p><br>
<p>Mount Kathleen</p><br>
<p>Mount Kyffin</p><br>
<p>Mount Patrick</p><br>
<p>Mount Robert Scott</p><br>
<p>Osicki Glacier</p><br>
<p>Pain Neve</p><br>
<p>Separation Range</p><br>
<p>Siege Dome</p><br>
<p>The Untersberg is the northernmost massif of the Berchtesgaden Alps, a prominent spur straddling the border between Berchtesgaden, Germany and Salzburg, Austria. The highest peak of the table-top mountain is the Berchtesgaden Hochthron at 1,973 m.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Untersberg rises at the rim of the Northern Limestone Alps, immediately at the Salzburg Basin and the broad Salzach Valley. Neighbouring peaks are the Hoher Göll in the southeast and Mt. Watzmann in the south, beyond the Berchtesgaden Basin. In the northwest, the Saalach Valley with Bad Reichenhall separates it from the Hochstaufen massif of the Chiemgau Alps. About two-thirds of the area, including the Berchtesgaden Hochthron peak, is located in Germany, while the northernmost steep edge above Salzburg belongs to Austria.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is a landmark popular with tourists, due to its proximity to the City of Salzburg: less than 16 km south of the city centre and within easy reach, e.g. by bus lines running to the southern suburbs of Grödig and Großgmain.</p><br>
<p>Several trails lead to the top, though most people prefer the Untersbergbahn cable car. Constructed over a period of over two years, and opening in April 1961, the eight and a half minute journey lifts passengers from the lower terminus at the village of Sankt Leonhard at 456 m over 1,320 m to the top station on the Geiereck spur at an altitude of 1,776 m, transporting them a horizontal distance of almost 2.5 km with a maximum height above the ground of 286 m.</p><br>
<p>The first recorded ascent was in the first half of the 12th century, by Eberwein, a member of the Augustinian monastery at Berchtesgaden.</p><br>
<h3>Peaks</h3><br>
<p>Berchtesgaden Hochthron: 1,973 m</p><br>
<p>Rauheck: 1,892 m</p><br>
<p>Gamsalpkopf: 1,888 m</p><br>
<p>Salzburg Hochthron: 1,853 m</p><br>
<p>Mitterberg: 1,840 m</p><br>
<p>Geiereck: 1,805 m</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Untersberg massif is mainly made up of limestone, a bed of Dachstein chalk—mined as "Untersberg marble"—on a dolostone basis, and of small deposits of bauxite. Untersberg marble also forms the facade of notable buildings such as Salzburg Cathedral.</p><br>
<p>The Karst topography of the limestone includes numerous caves. So far, more than 400 have been explored—including the Schellenberg ice cave at an elevation of 1,570 m, a show cave since 1925, and the Kolowrat Cave with a 300 m high dome. The Riesending cave with a depth of 1,148 m and a length of 19.5 km is the largest known in Germany. There also is a lake at 930 m depth. An expedition in August 2008 revealed that its lowest point had not yet been reached.</p><br>
<h2>Legend</h2><br>
<p>First mentioned as Vndarnsperch ("Noon Mountain") in a 1306 deed issued by the Salzburg archbishops, the prominent spur has been the subject of numerous myths and legends. According to a popular king in the mountain tale, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa is asleep inside Mt. Untersberg until his resurrection. His beard is said to be growing longer and longer around a round table and to have grown round two times. Myth says that when the beard has grown three times around the table the end of the world has come. When Frederick leaves the mountain, there will be no further Holy Roman Emperor and the last great battle of humankind will be fought at the pear tree on the Walserfeld, a pasture near Wals, west of Salzburg. There is a similar legend for the Kyffhäuser Mountain in Thuringia and Trifels Castle.</p><br>
<p>Other legends say that it is Charlemagne waiting inside the Untersberg, taken care of by the Untersberger Mandln, small dwarf-like creatures. Every hundred years he awakes and when he sees the ravens (actually choughs) still flying around the Untersberg he sleeps for another century. Indeed, Charlemagne had held a synod at Salzburg in 803 AD, where he met with Bishop Arno. The Alpine tradition of the Untersberg Wild Hunt (Perchten) has recently been revived. There are also several legends about the cave system below the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The landmark gained international fame as the "distinctive, lopsided peak" featured at the beginning and end of the 1965 movie The Sound of Music, although the filming was done on the German side, not the Austrian side. It was where Julie Andrews sang The Hills Are Alive at the opening scene and where the family climbed the mountain on their escape to Switzerland at the end of the film.</p><br>
<p>The mountain also lends its name to an 1829 opera, Der Untersberg, by Johann Nepomuk von Poißl (1783–1865).</p><br>
<h2>Marble ball mills</h2><br>
<p>The Untersberger marble ball mills are located in Marktschellenberg in Berchtesgaden, at the opening of the Almbachklamm valley.</p><br>
<p>The Kügelmühlen (ball mills) were established in 1683. Once popular children&#39;s toys, these marbles were shipped all over the world. Through Rotterdam and London, marble shipping was directed toward the East and West Indies and exported at the rate of 60,000 to 80,000 (and sometimes as high as 100,000) pounds per year. Marbles were welcome as cargo in sailing ships, as they were suitable as ballast because of their high density. The last marbles went from Untersberg to London in 1921.</p><br>
<p>As late as the 1850s, the Almbach valley had 40 ball mills with another 90 in the surrounding region, worked mainly by poor mountain farmers. Today, a single ball mill operates primarily as a tourist attraction.</p><br>
<p>The ball mills were driven by the waters of the Almbach river. The lower fixed grinding stones are made of hard sandstone and the upper turntables from beech wood. Grinding of the balls varies from two to eight days according to their size. After course grinding on the sandstone, the marble balls underwent sanding and a polish.</p><br>
<p>Avery Island  is a salt dome best known as the source of Tabasco sauce. Located in Iberia Parish, Louisiana, United States, it is about three miles  inland from Vermilion Bay, which in turn opens onto the Gulf of Mexico. A small human population lives on the island.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island was named after the Avery family, who settled there in the 1830s, but long before that, Native Americans had found that Avery Island’s verdant flora covered a precious natural resource—a massive salt dome. There, Native Americans boiled the Island’s briny spring water to extract salt, which they traded to other tribes as far away as central Texas, Arkansas, and Ohio.</p><br>
<p>According to records maintained prior to 1999 in the Southern Historical Collection at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Petite Anse Island, renamed Avery Island in the late 19th century, was purchased by John Craig Marsh of New Jersey in 1818. Marsh operated a sugar plantation on the islands fertile soil. His daughter, Sarah Craig Marsh, married Daniel Dudley Avery in 1837, thus uniting the Marsh and Avery families. Daniel Dudley Avery hailed from Baton Rouge, and was a jurist. In 1849, Daniel became co-owner of his in-laws sugar plantation, and in 1855 he became sole owner.</p><br>
<p>During the American Civil War, a mine of pure rock salt was founded on Avery Island in May 1861, which subsequently produced more than 22 million pounds (10,000 metric tons) of salt for the Confederacy. According to the historian John D. Winters in his The Civil War in Louisiana (1963), the rock salt mine had been well-protected, until Union General Nathaniel P. Banks began a push up Bayou Teche. After an all-night march, Union Colonel W.K. Kimball, in Winters words, "advanced to the beautiful little island and, without opposition, burned eighteen buildings, smashed the steam engines and mining equipment, scattered six hundred barrels of salt awaiting shipping, and brought away a ton of gunpowder left behind by Taylors men.</p><br>
<p>Before the Civil War, Edmund McIlhenny joined the Avery family, by wedding Mary Eliza Avery, daughter of Daniel Dudley Avery and Sarah Marsh Avery.</p><br>
<p>In 1868, McIlhenny founded McIlhenny Company, and began manufacturing Tabasco brand pepper sauce. In 1870, he received letters patent for his sauce processing formula. That same basic process is still used today.</p><br>
<p>In 1938, E.A. McIlhenny established a nutria farm on Avery Island, Louisiana, within shouting distance of the factory where the company that bears his family name makes Tabasco sauce. According to company history, McIlhenny bought his stock of nutrias from a farm in New Orleans, so he was not the first to introduce the creature, a native of southern Brazil, Argentina, and Chile, to North America. That dubious honor belongs to another. What is certain, though, is that McIlhenny, for reasons unknown, released an unknown but probably large number of nutrias into the wild from the confines of Avery Island, and from there they fanned out and proliferated.</p><br>
<p>Avery Island was hit hard in September 2005 by Hurricane Rita. According to The New York Times, the family spent $5 million on constructing a 17 ft-high levee, pumps, and back-up generators to ensure that future hurricanes will not disrupt Tabasco sauce production.</p><br>
<h3>Bird sanctuary</h3><br>
<p>Under the Avery/McIlhenny family&#39;s management, Avery Island has remained a natural paradise, inhabited by many animal species, as well as by exotic plants from throughout the world.</p><br>
<p>Edward Avery McIlhenny, or "Mr. Ned" as he was affectionately known, founded this bird colony—later called Bird City—around 1895 after plume hunters had slaughtered egrets by the thousands to provide feathers for ladies&#39; hats. Edward gathered eight young egrets, raised them in captivity on the Island, and released them in the fall to migrate across the Gulf of Mexico. The following spring the birds returned to the Island with others of their species, a migration that continues today.</p><br>
<h3>Exotic plants</h3><br>
<p>Edward McIlhenny introduced numerous varieties of azaleas, Japanese camellias, Egyptian papyrus sedge, and other rare plants to the Islands natural landscape. When oil was discovered on the Island in 1942, he ensured that production crews bypassed live oak trees and buried pipelines (or painted them green) to preserve the Islands beauty, wildlife, and utility as a wildlife refuge.</p><br>
<p>Today Jungle Gardens and Bird City are open to the public.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Avery Island is surrounded on all sides by bayous (slow-moving, muddy rivers), salt marsh, and swampland; it sits about 130 miles (225 km) west of New Orleans. The island was a sugar plantation formerly known as Petite Anse Island. (Petite Anse means "Little Cove" in Cajun French.) Access to the island is via toll road (technically, a very low toll bridge, which charges only on inbound traffic).</p><br>
<p>At its highest point, the island is 163 ft above mean sea level. It covers about 2,200 acre and is about 2.5 mi across at its widest point.</p><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>Avery Island is actually a huge dome of rock salt, three miles (5 km) long and two and a half miles (4 km) wide. It was created by the upwelling of ancient evaporite (salt) deposits that exist beneath the Mississippi River Delta region. These upwellings are known as "salt domes." Avery Island is one of five salt dome islands that rise above the flat Louisiana Gulf coast. The Five Islands from northwest to southeast are Jefferson Island, Avery Island, Weeks Island, Cote Blanche Island and Belle Isle.</p><br>
<h2>Government and infrastructure</h2><br>
<p>The United States Postal Service operates the Avery Island Post Office.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>The Iberia Parish School System operates the public schools in the area.</p><br>
<p>Students attend schools in New Iberia. Students are zoned to Center Street Elementary School, Iberia Middle School, and New Iberia Senior High School.</p><br>
<p>Avery Island Elementary School (K-6) formerly served the community. After the 2007-2008 school year, students from Avery Island Elementary were moved to Center Street Elementary School. At the time, 118 children attended Avery Island Elementary. While Avery Island Elementary operated, it fed into the same middle and high schools that Center Street feeds into.</p><br>
<p>Kolleru Lake is one of the largest freshwater lakes in India located in state of Andhra Pradesh 15 kilometers away from the city of Eluru. Kolleru is located between Krishna and Godavari deltas. Kolleru spans into two districts - Krishna and West Godavari. The lake is fed directly by water from the seasonal Budameru and Tammileru streams, and is connected to the Krishna and Godavari irrigation systems by over 67 major and minor irrigation canals. This lake is a major tourist attraction. Many birds migrate here in winter, such as Siberian crane, ibis, and painted storks. The lake was an important habitat for an estimated 20 million resident and migratory birds, including the grey or spot-billed pelican . The lake was declared as a wildlife sanctuary in November 1999 under India&#39;s Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, and designated a wetland of international importance in November 2002 under the international Ramsar Convention. The wildlife sanctuary covers an area of 308 km.</p><br>
<h2>Current state of the lake</h2><br>
<p>Thousands of fish tanks were dug up effectively converting the lake into a mere drain. This had great impact in terms of pollution, leading to difficulty in getting drinking water for the local people. This is in addition to the loss of ecological diversity and intrusion of sea water into the land masses and its fallout in terms of adverse influence on the rainfall pattern in this region. This imbalance has an adverse effect on the thousands of acres of crop in the upper reaches of sanctuary in view of stoppages water flow into the sea because of obstruction by bunds of the fish tanks that appeared illegally.</p><br>
<p>Satellite images taken on February 9, 2001 by the Indian remote sensing satellite found that approximately 42% of the 245 km lake was occupied by aquaculture, while agriculture had encroached another 8.5%. The area under aquaculture consisted of 1050 fish ponds within the lake and 38 dried-up fish ponds, which together covered an area of 103 km. The agricultural encroachments were mostly rice paddies. Surprisingly no clear water could be found in the satellite image. The rest of the lake is being diminished by water diversions or was infested with weeds like elephant grass and water hyacinth.</p><br>
<p>Rich in flora and fauna, it attracts migratory birds from northern Asia and Eastern Europe between the months of October and March. During this season, the lake is visited by an estimated two million birds. The resident birds include grey pelicans, Asian open-billed storks (Anastomus oscitans), painted storks (Mycteria leucocephala), glossy ibises, white ibises, teals, pintails and shovellers. The migratory birds include red-crested pochards, blackwinged stilts, avocets, common red shanks, wigeons, gadwalls and cormorants, garganeys, herons and flamingos.</p><br>
<p>Kolleru lake contains numerous fertile islets called lanka&#39;s, many of the small ones are submerged during floods. The origin of unusual depression which forms the bed of the lake is unknown, but it was possibly the results of an earthquake. Therefore, many ancient villages are precepted in the bed of the lake as a result of floods and earthquake.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Two copper plates of the early Pallava dynasty have been found in the lake, tracing its history to Langula Narasimha Deva (Langulya Gajapathi Raju) a Ganga Vanshi Odisha king, (Oddiya/Odia raju)Vaddiya Rajulu/Vaddi. According to legend, the Gajapathi fort was located at Kolleti Kota on one of the eastern islands of the lake. The enemy general "muhammadan" probably a Bahamany general encamped at "Chiguru kota" located on the shores. In some ways, the lake protected the Odia forces. The enemy finally tried to excavate a channel, the modern-day Upputeru, so that the water of the lake would empty into the sea and the level would fall so that they could attack the Gajapathi fort. The royal Odia army general sacrificed his own daughter to propitiate Gods and ensure his success against Muhammadan and her name was "Perantala Kanama". Therefore, the channel was called Perantala Kanama. Sri Peddinti Ammavari Temple is one of the oldest and famous temples found in Kolleru. The Suryavanshi Gajapatis of Odisha, on the height of their power in the 15th century, ruled over a kingdom extending from the Ganges river in the north to the Kaveri in the south under Gajapati Kapilendra Deva. But by the early 16th century, the Gajapatis lost great portions of their southern dominion to Vijayanagar and Golconda.The Gajapatis were a medieval Hindu Suryavamsi dynasty of Kalinga- Utkal Odisha who ruled large parts of Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. During the glorious reign of Kapilendra deva, the first Suryavamsi Gajapati emperor, the boundary of the Kalinga empire (Ancient Odisha) stretched from river Ganges in North to Kaveri in South and from Amarkantak in West to Bay of Bengal(Kalinga Sagara) in east. This lake has a disaster story regarding a quotation many people use it when they lost everything "Na kompa kolleru aiyindi ". It meant that back in 50s, many of the people of Telaprolu village head familys had invested and bought lands near kolleru lake, but due to expansion of lake, they lost all their properties.</p><br>
<h2>Sanctuary</h2><br>
<p>The sanctuary has the following watch towers for sighting the birds.</p><br>
<p>Atapaka: 1.5 km from Kaikaluru to see varieties of waterfowl.</p><br>
<p>Murthyraju tank 8 km from Nidamarru</p><br>
<p>East Chodavaram: 25 km from Eluru where openbill storks nest in colonies from July to December.</p><br>
<p>The sanctuary is approachable from all four sides of the lake by road, directly to the following places.</p><br>
<p>Atapaka – 2.5 km from Kaikaluru town</p><br>
<p>Bhujabalapatnam - 6 km from Kaikaluru</p><br>
<p>pallevada -9 km from kaikaluru town</p><br>
<p>Kovvada Lanka—7 km from Kaikaluru town *Murthiraju Tanks – 8 km from Nidamarru</p><br>
<p>Gudivakalanka – 3 km from Gudivakalanka or 15 km from Eluru, The nearest city by road or rail.</p><br>
<p>Prathikola Lanaka or 19 km from Eluru. The nearest city is Eluru, which is 35 km by road.</p><br>
<p>Kolletikota -18 km from Kaikalur.</p><br>
<p>Accommodation:</p><br>
<p>Hotels in Eluru, Kaikaluru, Akividu, Bhimavaram and Vijayawada.</p><br>
<p>Torghatten is a granite mountain on Torget island in Brønnøy municipality in Nordland county, Norway. It is known for its characteristic hole, or natural tunnel, through its center. It is possible to walk up to the tunnel on a well-prepared path, and through it on a natural path.</p><br>
<p>On 6 May 1988, Widerøe Flight 710 from Namsos to Brønnøysund crashed into the side of the mountain, and all the 36 passengers and crew died.</p><br>
<h2>Tunnel</h2><br>
<p>According to legend, the hole was made by the troll Hestmannen while he was chasing the beautiful girl Lekamøya. As the troll realized he would not get the girl, he released an arrow to kill her, but the troll-king of Sømna threw his hat into the arrow&#39;s path to save her. The hat turned into the mountain with a hole in the middle. Also, Felice Vinci has linked the legends about Torghatten to the Homeric myth of Polyphemus.</p><br>
<p>The tunnel is 160 m long, 20 m wide, and 35 m high. It was formed during the Scandinavian ice age. Ice and water eroded the looser rocks, while the harder ones in the mountain top have resisted erosion.</p><br>
<p>Crinkle Crags is a fell in the English Lake District in the county of Cumbria. It forms part of two major rings of mountains, surrounding the valleys of Great Langdale and Upper Eskdale. The name reflects the fell&#39;s physical appearance as its summit ridge is a series of five rises and depressions  that are very distinctive from the valley floor. In Old English, cringol means twisted or wrinkled.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The nomenclature of the various tops is very confused. Traditional guidebooks tend to rely on what the eye sees and therefore focus attention upon the five ‘crinkles’ of the summit ridge. These are generally referred to as the first to fifth crinkles, but Richards starts in the north, Birkett in the south and Wainwright employs both conventions, depending upon the direction of travel. For clarity in this article the first crinkle will be taken as the southernmost top. On this basis, the second Crinkle (also called Long Top) is the true summit of the fell. The only other Crinkle with a definitive name is Gunson Knott, the fifth. To the north of the Crinkles proper is a depression and then the outcropping continues over Shelter Crags.</p><br>
<p>In recent times more systematic hill lists have been produced based upon topographical prominence and height, rather than mere visual appeal. Most relevant to Crinkle Crags are the lists of Hewitts and Nuttalls. These variously list the summit, the first Crinkle (Crinkle Crags South Top), and two tops on Shelter Crags (Shelter Crags and Shelter Crags North Top), but exclude the other three Crinkles.</p><br>
<p>The ridge of Crinkle Crags extends due south from its higher neighbour, Bowfell. Between the two is the col of Three Tarns, named for the small pools in the depression. Depending upon recent rainfall there may be anything from two to five tarns in evidence on the ground. From here the rocky outcropping of Shelter Crags is quickly reached.</p><br>
<p>Beyond the summit to the south the ridge descends over Stonesty Pike and Little Stand (a Nuttall) to the Duddon Valley at Cockley Beck. Two further ridges branch out from Crinkle Crags on either side of the summit, before turning south to run parallel to Little Stand. On the west, across the marshy trench of Moasdale is Hard Knott. To the east an initially indistinct ridge firms up on the traverse to Cold Pike. Between Cold Pike and Crinkle Crags, but generally included as part of the latter is the further Nuttall of Great Knott.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>In his Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells, Alfred Wainwright describes Crinkle Crags as</p><br>
<p>There are a variety of routes directly to the summit: most people climb the fell from Great Langdale and usually together with all or some of the adjoining fells of Bowfell, Pike of Blisco, Rossett Pike and Cold Pike to make a high-level ridge walk which encompasses the whole of the high ground at the head of Great Langdale. The ascent from Eskdale is very good, but that is at least a 15-kilometre (9-mile) round trip (depending on where in Eskdale one starts), and many people will think that this too far to "bag" just one fell. The shortest and quickest route requires the use of a car to the top of the Wrynose Pass motor road.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The traverse of the summit ridge with its series of undulations is an exhilarating experience for the fell walker. The ridge includes the so-called "Bad Step", a steep declivity which catches out many walkers when travelling from north to south; however, the obstacle can be by-passed without too much trouble.</p><br>
<p>The view from the summit is very good: there are airy views of Great Langdale, Eskdale and Dunnerdale, with the estuaries of the rivers Duddon and Esk well seen as they enter the Irish Sea. There is a very good view of England&#39;s highest mountain, Scafell Pike, which lies just four kilometres (2½ miles) away to the north west. Shelter Crags gives extensive all-round views.</p><br>
<p>Cerro Negro is an active volcano in the Cordillera de los Maribios mountain range in Nicaragua, about 10 km from the village of Malpaisillo. It is a very new volcano, the youngest in Central America, having first appeared in April 1850. It consists of a gravelly basaltic cinder cone, which contrasts greatly with the surrounding verdant hillsides, and gives rise to its name, which means Black Hill.</p><br>
<p>Cerro Negro has erupted frequently since its first eruption. One unusual aspect of several eruptions has been the emission of ash from the top of the cone, while lava erupts from fractures at the base.</p><br>
<p>Cerro Negro is a polygenetic cinder cone that is part of the Central America Volcanic Arc, which formed as a result of the Cocos Plate subducting under the Caribbean Plate, at a rate of 9 cm/year. It is the largest and southernmost of four cinder cones that have formed along a NW-SE trend line in the Cordillera de los Maribios mountain range. Despite its youth, Cerro Negro has been one of the most active volcanoes in Nicaragua, with its latest eruption occurring in 1999. Since its birth in 1850, it has erupted approximately 23 times.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptive history</h2><br>
<p>The first recorded eruption of Cerro Negro occurred on April 13, 1850 and volcanic activity lasted until May 27. Central vent and explosive eruptions transpired, with lava flow and damage to land and property. The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) was recorded at 2 out of 8, classifying the eruption as Strombolian/Vulcanian. Finally, the lava volume was recorded to be 5.4 x 10 and the tephra volume was 6.5 x 10 m.</p><br>
<p>Cerro Negro’s second eruption took place on November 14, 1867 and volcanic activity lasted until November 30. Radial fissure and explosive eruptions occurred, with some lava flows, along the NE-SW trend line fissure. The VEI was also recorded at 2 (Strombolian/Vulcanian), and the tephra volume was 8.6 x 10 m.</p><br>
<p>The third eruption of Cerro Negro occurred 32 years later and lasted from November 22 to November 29, 1899. Explosive eruptions resulted in damaged land, and the VEI was also recorded as a 2. Finally, the tephra volume was documented at 1.7 x 10 m.</p><br>
<p>From October 28 to November 3, 1914, the volcano erupted explosively at the central vent. Mudslides also resulted in increased damage to the land, but there were no fatalities because they did not flow over any villages or towns. Although the VEI was yet again 2, the tephra volume was a recorded 2.8 x 10 m.</p><br>
<p>Five years later, Cerro Negro erupted again from June 20–30, 1919, with explosive eruptions resulting in a VEI of 2. No tephra or lava volumes were recorded at this time.</p><br>
<p>Just four years after that, from October 23 until December 11, 1923, Cerro Negro erupted along the summit and upper north flank. Central vent and radial fissure explosions erupted during this time, and lava flows were recorded in this VEI 3 sub-plinian eruption. It was the largest eruption in the history of the volcano, with the lava volume being 1.0 x 10 m and the tephra volume being 3.6 x 10 m.</p><br>
<p>Cerro Negro erupted next on February 10, 1929, and volcanic activity lasted until March. Flank (excentric) vent and radial fissures also explosively erupted, resulting in excessive lava flows. The volume of lava erupted was recorded at only 1.0 x 10 m in the VEI 2 eruption.</p><br>
<h3>Eruptions of 1947, 1948 and 1950</h3><br>
<p>Another 18 years passed before Cerro Negro erupted again, but on July 9, 1947 the volcano had its largest eruption to date. The VEI was recorded at 3 along the summit and NE flank, with the eruptive characteristics including central vent eruption, flank venting, and lava flows. Evacuations were called for the Malpaisillo village, and major land and property damage resulted from the volcano’s explosive eruptions. The recorded lava volume was 3.8 x 10 m and the recorded tephra volume was 3.1 x 10 m.</p><br>
<p>Less than one year later, on March 31, 1948, Cerro Negro recorded another Strombolian eruption (VEI 2) from its central vent. No lava or tephra volumes were recorded, however. A similar eruption occurred in June 1949, with the VEI 2 eruption exploding from the central vent.</p><br>
<p>Another sub-plinian VEI 3 explosive vulcanian eruption occurred from Cerro Negro’s central vent from November 21 to December 17, 1950. Lava flows resulted, but evacuation was unnecessary. The lava volume was 1.0 x 10 m and the tephra volume was 3.8 x 10 m for this particular eruption.</p><br>
<h3>1954 eruption</h3><br>
<p>In February 1954 another VEI 2 Strombolian eruption exploded out of Cerro Negro’s central vent, but lava and tephra volumes were not recorded. Three years later from September 4–24, 1957, a VEI of 2 was recorded via the summit and east flank of Cerro Negro. Lava flows damaged the land from the explosive eruption, with the lava volume reaching 4.5 x 10 m and the tephra volume reaching 2.8 x 10 m.</p><br>
<p>The summit and south flank exploded next on September 28, 1960, and volcanic activity continued until December 26. This particular VEI was determined to be level 3 after radial fissure and central vent eruptions occurred. Land damage was caused to the surrounding land via lava flows, with the volume of the lava recorded at 5.2 x 10 m and the tephra volume recorded at 3.4 x 10 m.</p><br>
<p>Cerro Negro’s NE-flank fissure erupted next on October 25, 1961. Although radial fissure eruption and lava flow was characteristic of this particular eruption, the VEI was only recorded as a 1, and no lava or tephra volumes were recorded. It was the smallest Cerro Negro eruption to date.</p><br>
<p>Another eruption from the central vent occurred on March 21, 1962 and lasted until early April. The VEI was recorded as 2, and lava flows were observed, although no land damage was witnessed. Exactly one year later, a VEI 1 eruption occurred from the central vent of Cerro Negro on March 21, 1963.</p><br>
<h3>1968 eruption</h3><br>
<p>The volcanic activity from October 23 until December 10, 1968 marked the formation of the Cristo Rey crater, when the summit and south flank of Cerro Negro erupted with a sub-plinian VEI of 3. The new vent formed a lava flow 750m long and 600m wide and a thickness of 3m. Thirteen villages located near the erupting volcano were evacuated on the 27th because of the excessive ash falls. Additional larger-scale evacuations Nicaragua’s 2nd largest city, León, recorded ash falls of over 1 cm thick. Lava flows advanced at a rate of 23 m/day, and it caused additional land damage as the lava poured from three of Cerro Negro’s craters, fountaining to heights of 30m into the air. The eruptive ash columns reached heights of 2.3 to 4.8 km. In addition, incandescent gases from the vents raised to heights of 120 meters, and these could be seen over 50 km away from the volcano. When the volcanic activity ceased, the lava volume totaled 6.9 x 10 m and the tephra volume totaled 2.7 x10 m.</p><br>
<h3>1969 eruption</h3><br>
<p>Another small-scale VEI 1 eruption took place after the central vent exploded from December 19–29, 1969. But two years later from February 3–14, 1971, the towns surrounding Cerro Negro were again evacuated due to the sudden sub-plinian VEI 3 eruption of the summit and the formation and eruption of a new eastern flank. Volcanic bombs were shot approximately 600m into the air, and incandescent gases were released during the time in between eruptions. Ash columns were approximately 10 km high, and a tephra volume of 5.8 x10 m (over 300 square kilometers) caused major damage to the local crops and buildings. The city of León alone had recorded 18 cm of ash, which resulted in large-scale building collapse.</p><br>
<h3>1992 eruption</h3><br>
<p>Over 20 years passed, and the Cerro Negro volcano was at peace until one of the volcano’s largest eruptions occurred on April 9, 1992. Volcanic activity lasted for a total of five days, with the main sub-plinian eruption (VEI 3) occurring over a two-day time period, producing an ash column that was roughly seven kilometers high. Over 20,000 people were immediately evacuated, mostly due to failed water systems until eruptions ceased on the 14th of April. This eruption caused several fatalities, and widespread damage to land and property after the tephra volume measured 2.6 x 10 m. This large tephra volume produced approximately four centimeters of ash across most of León, resulting in many collapsed roofs and additional injuries and fatalities.</p><br>
<h3>1995 eruption</h3><br>
<p>Three years later, volcanic activity started on May 29, 1995, which marked the beginning of the first phase of this eruption. Small, phreatic eruptions occurred frequently during this phase, averaging 100-160 explosions per day. These Strombolian eruptions generated convective ash columns that reached heights of 200–1000 meters, and these explosions lasted for a period of 79 days. A low-energy pyroclastic flow was observed on the northwestern flank on June 2. After June 6, the number of eruptions decreased gradually at a rate of 30-40 eruptions per day. By July 19, all volcanic activity ceased for a period of 95 days. By mid-November, the hiatus ended and the second phase commenced. Eruptions continued for a period of thirteen days and lasted until December 3, 1995. During this time, the eruptions were larger, and volcanic bombs and blocks up to two meters in diameter were ejected from Cerro Negro. Ash columns achieve heights of 2 to 2.5 meters While the VEI was only measured as a 2, central vent explosions, pyroclastic flows, phreatic explosions, and lava dome extrusion were all characteristic of this eruption period. New lava filled about 2/3 of the 1992 crater, and additional lava flows caused damage to land, extending 1.5 km north of the north base cone. Ash falls caused damage to property and farmland, with an average deposit of two millimeters per day in León (~20 km from volcano), but there were no fatalities during the safe evacuation of 6000 people in the surrounding villages. Overall, the lava flow volume reached 8.0 x 10 m and the tephra volume peaked at 5.8 x 10 m during this eruption period, resulting in the addition of about 50 meters of height to the cinder cone.</p><br>
<h3>1999 eruption</h3><br>
<p>The last volcanic activity at Cerro Negro occurred on August 5, 1999 and lasted for a total of two days. Three earthquakes ( 5.2) occurred in three hours, which triggered a small-scale eruption of the volcano. It was the first time in the history of Cerro Negro that large-magnitude earthquakes preceded the eruption. The VEI was only recorded as a 1, as the south flank (near the Cristo Rey crater) experienced radial fissure eruption, along with explosive and phreatic eruptions, in the formation of three new vents. Small-scale evacuations of surrounding villages were carried out, but the low-volatile, highly crystalline basaltic magma only had a lava volume of 6 x 10 m. Additionally, the tephra volume was only in the 106m3 range. It was concluded that the volcanic activity of Cerro Negro in 1999 was tectonically-induced, and had three earthquakes not occurred, the eruption would have also not occurred.</p><br>
<p>The most recent eruptions at Cerro Negro occurred in August 1999, although strong seismic activity was registered in early 2004. In 1998, an eruption was thought to have occurred shortly after the passage of Hurricane Mitch, but it later transpired that the copious amounts of steam seen rising from the volcano were caused by rainwater percolating through to hot lava from the 1995 eruption.</p><br>
<p>Following the 1999 eruption, the summit crater and fissures created from this eruption are currently the main source of volcanic gas flux today. It is estimated that the total CO2 output of Cerro Negro is conservatively estimated to be 2,800 t d-1.</p><br>
<p>Although the Cerro Negro volcano has only been around for a period of 159 years, it has erupted at least 23 times, which is highly active compared to most volcanoes. This historical growth of the volcano has allowed for documentation of the growth of this volcano overtime. It was discovered that the timing of future eruptions is correlated with the volume of the previous significant eruption. Since there have been steady-state eruptions since 1900, a Cerro Negro Time-Volume Prediction Model was made.</p><br>
<p>Although a small-scale eruption did occur in 1999, another larger-scale eruption is expected to occur in the immediate future. Cerro Negro does not differ from most volcanoes, in that numerous hazards are associated with volcanic activity. These hazards include lava flows, mudslides, pyroclastic flows, and earthquakes, but the biggest hazard of Cerro Negro is the effects of the ash and tephra fallouts.</p><br>
<p>Currently, Cerro Negro is being monitored by the Nicaraguan Seismic Network, which is affiliated with INETER (Instituto Nicaragüense de Esdudios Territoriales). These programs have a total of 36 stations throughout Nicaragua, and they each have a monitoring station on Cerro Negro. Seismic activity, gas concentrations, surface deformation, and temperature fluctuations are all carefully watched in order to mitigate the effects of a possible eruption.</p><br>
<p>As Cerro Negro lies in a less-populated area of Nicaragua, there is less volcanic risk to human life compared to many of the other volcanoes in the world. Mudslides and pyroclastic flows that come from Cerro Negro are not in the direct path of major cities or towns. Nevertheless, the eruptions of Cerro Negro have been known to cause catastrophic damage to buildings and farmland, due to the widespread ash falls and tephra fallouts.</p><br>
<p>Concepción is one of two volcanoes  that form the island of Ometepe, which is situated in Lake Nicaragua in Nicaragua, Central America.</p><br>
<p>Concepción is an active stratovolcano that forms the northwest part of the Isla de Ometepe. Concepción is 1600 m tall and rests on a 1-km-thick base of Quaternary lacustrine mudstones. It is considered a "pristine" volcano because there has been no influence of other volcanoes on its growth. The growth of the volcano comes in phases based on weaknesses of the crust that the volcano rests on. As it grows from additional magma flow, the volcano grows in mass and exerts pressure on the crust. This causes shifts which in turn causes more volcanic growth. This affects the magma chamber which begins the cycle again with growth because of magmatic flow.</p><br>
<p>Since 1883, Concepción has erupted at least 25 times; its last eruption was on 9 March 2010. Concepcións eruptions are characterized by frequent, moderate-sized explosions. Active fumaroles are present just north of Concepcións summit crater.</p><br>
<p>Adventure seekers from all over the world travel to Ometepe Island to climb Volcán Concepción. There are numerous trails in the tropical forest that surrounds the volcano&#39;s ash-covered peak.</p><br>
<p>With a height of 1,394 m, Maderas is the smaller of the two volcanoes which make up the island of Ometepe, situated in Lake Nicaragua in Nicaragua, Central America. Unlike Concepción, the other volcano on the island, Maderas has not been active in historical times. Its crater contains a crater lake.</p><br>
<p>The slopes of Maderas are one of the few places on the Pacific side of Nicaragua where cloud forest grows. The only other place where this is found is at the Mombacho volcano. Cloud forests are characterized by a rich plant and animal life, made possible by the high levels of humidity in the climate. Prehistoric petroglyphs have been found at the Maderas volcano.</p><br>
<p>Climbing to the top of the volcano is a popular tourist activity. Currently, tourists must hire a guide to climb to the top, as several tourists have gotten lost in the past. The hike to the top of the crater can be difficult, with steep inclines that get muddy when it rains. It rains often on Ometepe Island, so a slippery climb is likely, even in the dry season. The return walk takes between 6 and 9 hours.</p><br>
<p>There are a number of interesting species that dwell on the volcano, including the white-faced monkey, mountain crab, howler monkeys, and a number of butterflies including the well-known blue morphos.</p><br>
<p>Masaya is a caldera located in Masaya, Nicaragua, 20 km south of the capital Managua. It is Nicaragua&#39;s first and largest national park, and one of 78 protected areas of Nicaragua. The complex volcano is composed of a nested set of calderas and craters, the largest of which is Las Sierras shield volcano and caldera. Within this caldera lies a sub-vent, which is Masaya Volcano sensu stricto. The vent is a shield type composing of basaltic lavas and tephras and includes a summit crater. This hosts Masaya caldera, formed 2,500 years ago by an 8-km³ basaltic ignimbrite eruption. Inside this caldera a new basaltic complex has grown from eruptions mainly on a semi-circular set of vents that include the Masaya and Nindiri cones. The latter host the pit craters of Masaya, Santiago, Nindiri and San Pedro. Observations in the walls of the pit craters indicate that there have been several episodes of cone and pit crater formation.</p><br>
<p>Masaya continually emits large amounts of sulfur dioxide gas (from the active Santiago crater) and volcanologists study this (amongst other signs) to better understand the behavior of the volcano and also evaluate the impact of acid rain and the potential for health problems.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The floor of Masaya caldera is mainly covered by poorly vegetated ʻaʻā lava, indicating resurfacing within the past 1000 or so years, but only two lava flows have erupted since the sixteenth century. The first, in 1670, was an overflow from the Nindiri crater, which at that time hosted a 1-km-wide lava lake. The other, in 1772, issued from a fissure on the flank of the Masaya cone. Since 1772, lava has appeared at the surface only in the Santiago pit crater (presently active and persistently degassing) and possibly within Nindiri crater in 1852. A lake occupies the far eastern end of the caldera.</p><br>
<p>Although the recent activity of Masaya has largely been dominated by continuous degassing from an occasionally lava-filled pit crater, a number of discrete explosive events have occurred in the last 50 years. One such event occurred on November 22, 1999, which was recognised from satellite data. A hot spot appeared on satellite imagery, and there was a possible explosion. On April 23, 2001 the crater exploded and formed a new vent in the bottom of the crater. The explosion sent rocks with diameters up to 60 cm which travelled up to 500 m from the crater. Vehicles in the visitors area were damaged and one person was injured. On October 4, 2003 an eruption cloud was reported at Masaya. The plume rose to a height of ~4.6 km. In 2008, the mountain erupted spewing ash and steam. This volcano is monitored by the Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project. Volcanic gas emissions from this volcano are measured by a Multi-Component Gas Analyzer System, which detects pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas, improving prediction of volcanic activity.</p><br>
<h2>National park</h2><br>
<p>In 1979, Masaya became Nicaragua&#39;s first national park, named Masaya Volcano National Park (Parque Nacional Volcan Masaya). The park has an area of 54 km² includes two volcanoes and five craters, as well as a range of elevations between 100 and 630 meters above sea level. In the park is an underground tunnel formed by lava flows; one can find bats and look inside and observe the glowing lava in the dark crater mouth of the volcano.</p><br>
<h2>Geologic setting</h2><br>
<p>Masaya is one of 18 distinct volcanic centers that make up the Nicaraguan portion of the Central American Volcanic Belt (CAVF). Formed by the subduction of the Cocos Plate beneath the Caribbean Plate, along the Mesoamerican trench, the CAVF runs from volcán Tacaná in Guatemala to Irazú in Costa Rica. In western Nicaragua, the CAVF bisects the Nicaraguan Depression from Cosigüina volcano in the northwest to Maderas volcano in Lago Nicaragua. The Interior highlands to the northeast make up the majority of Nicaragua. Western Nicaragua consists of 4 principal geological provinces paralleling the Mesoamerican trench: 1. Pre-Cretaceous to Cretaceous ophiolitic suite; 2. Tertiary basins; 3. Tertiary volcanics; and the 4. Active Quaternary volcanic range.</p><br>
<p>An ophiolitic suite is found in the Nicoya Complex, which is made up of cherts, graywackes, tholeiitic pillow lavas and basaltic agglomerates. It is intruded by gabbroic, diabasic, and dioritic rocks. The Cretaceous-Tertiary basin is made up of five formations of mainly marine origin. The Rivas and Brito formations are uplifted to the southeast and are overlain in the northwest by a slightly tilted marine near- shore sequence, the El Fraile formation. This in turn passes north into the undeformed Tamarindo formation, a sequence of shallow marine, lacustrine and terrestrial sediments interspersed with ignimbrites. Northeast of the Nicaraguan Depression, the Coyol and Matagalpa formations, run from Honduras to Costa Rica and still show evidence of some volcanic centres, distinguishable as constructional landforms.</p><br>
<p>Quaternary volcanic rocks are found mainly in the Nicaraguan Depression and form two major groups: the Marrabios and the Sierras formations. The Marrabios Cordillera starts in the northwest with Cosiguina volcano and continues to the southeast with San Cristobal, Casitas, La Pelona, Telica and Rota. The Hoyo, Monte Galan, Momotombo and Momotombito volcanoes are built upon ignimbrite deposits from the nearby Malpaisillo caldera. South-east of Lake Managua lie Chiltepe, the Nejapa alignment, Masaya, Apoyo and Mombacho which overlie the Sierras ignimbrites, erupted from the Sierras Caldera surrounding Masaya volcano. Further south in Lake Cocibolca (or Lake Nicaragua), Zapatera, Concepcion and Maderas volcanoes mark the end of Nicaraguan section of the CAVF.</p><br>
<p>Mombacho is a stratovolcano in Nicaragua, near the city of Granada. It is 1344 metres high. The Mombacho Volcano Nature Reserve is one of 78 protected areas of Nicaragua. Mombacho is not an extinct volcano but the last eruption occurred in 1570. There is no historical knowledge of earlier eruptions.</p><br>
<p>The highest regions of the volcano are home to a cloud forest and dwarf forest, which contain flora and fauna endemic purely to the volcano. An increasingly popular tourist attraction, the volcano has fantastic views of Lake Nicaragua and the city of Granada. The volcano also has two hiking trails, a moderate one that circles the main crater, and another, more difficult trail (El Puma), which must be led by a guide. The more difficult trail is the only way to see some features such as the dwarf forest. The trail is almost completely 45° inclines and declines for about two miles.</p><br>
<p>More than 700 different plants are registered around Mombacho, including many species of orchids.</p><br>
<h2>Images of Mombacho</h2><br>
<p>Momotombo is a stratovolcano in Nicaragua, not far from the city of León. It stands on the shores of Lago de Managua. An eruption of the volcano in 1610 forced inhabitants of the Spanish city of León to relocate about 30 miles west. The ruins of this city are preserved at León Viejo . It also erupted in 1886, 1905, and most recently November 30, 2015.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is very symmetrical, and its form is a symbol of Nicaragua, cropping up in locations from matchboxes to revolutionary murals. This volcano was also very popular before World War I began. Many tourists visited, especially in 1904, one year before the eruption. The Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío wrote the poem "Momotombo". in its honor</p><br>
<p>A major geothermal field is located on the southern flank of the volcano. To climb the mountain, with a permit cross through the geothermal power plant and follow an easily marked trail through the treeline. Due to the active nature of the volcano and landslides, the route from the treeline to the top is constantly changing. The quickest way is straight up, through the small avalanche paths.</p><br>
<p>Lambaesis , Lambaisis, or Lambaesa , is a Roman archaeological site in Algeria, 7 mi southeast of Batna and 17 mi west of Timgad, located next to the modern village of Tazoult. The former bishopric is also a Latin Catholic titular bishopric.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Lambaesa was founded by the Roman military. The camp of the third legion (Legio III Augusta), to which it owes its origin, appears to have been established between AD 123-129, in the time of Roman emperor Hadrian, whose address to his soldiers was found inscribed on a pillar in a second camp to the west of the great camp still extant. However, other evidence suggests it was formed during the Punic Wars.</p><br>
<p>By AD 166 mention is made of the decurions of a vicus, 10 curiae of which are known by name; and the vicus became a municipium probably at the time when it was made the capital of the newly founded province of Numidia. Lambaesis was populated mainly by Romanized Berbers and by some Roman colonists with their descendants: Latin was the official and commonly used language (even if local Berbers spoke their own language mixed with Latinisms).</p><br>
<p>III Augusta was disbanded by Gordian III and the legionaries dispersed among the North African provinces. But the legion was restored in the AD 250s by Valerianus and Gallienus and from then on the legion was known as Augusta Restituta. Its final departure did not take place till after AD 392 (the town soon afterwards declined).</p><br>
<p>Indeed, under Septimius Severus (AD 193 ), Numidia was separated from Africa Vetus, and governed by an imperial procurator. Under the new organization of the empire by Diocletian, Numidia was divided in two provinces: the north became Numidia Cirtensis, with capital at Cirta, while the south, which included the Aurès Mountains and was threatened by raids, became Numidia Militiana, "Military Numidia", with capital at the legionary base of Lambaesis. Subsequently however, Emperor Constantine the Great reunited the two provinces in a single one, administered from Cirta, which was now renamed Constantina (modern Constantine, Algeria) in his honour. Its governor was raised to the rank of consularis in AD 320, and the province remained one of the seven provinces of the diocese of Africa until the invasion of the Vandals in AD 428, which began its slow decay, accompanied by desertification. The province remained under Vandal rule, but was effectively limited to the coastal areas by Berber raids. It was restored to Roman rule after the Vandalic War, when it became part of the new praetorian prefecture of Africa.</p><br>
<p>The Byzantines occupied Lambaesis and vicinity from the sixth century but around AD 683 the Arabs conquered the area, naming what remained of the city Bar-el-Molouk in the 10th century.</p><br>
<h2>Ecclesiastical history</h2><br>
<p>Lambaesis was an episcopal see during late Ancient times as part of the Roman province of Numidia.</p><br>
<p>For such an important town its Bishopric is surprisingly absent from the historical record. Lambaesis did not send a representative to the Council of Nicaea nor Chalcedon and is not mentioned by LeQuinn.</p><br>
<p>Saint Cyprian mentions a heretic bishop of Lambaesis who was condemned by a local synod of bishops around the year 240.</p><br>
<h3>Titular see</h3><br>
<p>The extinct diocese was nominally restored as a titular bishopric. Initially revived as Lambaisis, it was renamed Lambaesis in 1925.</p><br>
<p>It has had the following incumbents, of the lowest (episcopal) rank :</p><br>
<p>Jan Dembowski (1759.09.24 – 1790)</p><br>
<p>Hieronim Stojnowski (Stroynowski) (1804.08.20 – 1814.09.26)</p><br>
<p>Mateo José González Rubio (1836.02.01 – 1845.06.15)</p><br>
<p>Eduardo Vásquez, Dominican Order (O.P.) (1853.12.30 – 1856.12.12)</p><br>
<p>Thomas O’Callaghan, O.P. (1884.06.29 – 1886.12.03)</p><br>
<p>Jean-Marie-Michel Blois (衛忠藩), Paris Foreign Missions Society (M.E.P.) (1921.12.29 – 1946.04.11), as Apostolic Vicar of Southern Manchuria 南滿 (China) (1921.12.19 – 1924.12.03) and as Apostolic Vicar of Shenyang 瀋陽 (China) (1924.12.03 – 1946.04.11), later promoted first Metropolitan Archbishop of Shenyang 瀋陽 (China) (1946.04.11 – 1946.05.18)</p><br>
<p>James Moynagh, S.P.S. (1947.06.12 – 1950.04.18)</p><br>
<p>Vincenzo Maria Jacono (1950.09.08 – 1955.02.02)</p><br>
<p>Thomas Edward Gill (1956.04.11 – 1973.11.11)</p><br>
<p>John Stephen Cummins (1974.02.26 – 1977.05.03)</p><br>
<p>John Joseph Paul (1977.05.17 – 1983.10.14)</p><br>
<p>Cardinal Marian Jaworski (1984.05.21 – 1991.01.16), while Apostolic Administrator of Lviv (Ukraine) (1984.05.21 – 1991.01.16), later Metropolitan Archbishop of the same Lviv (Ukraine) (1991.01.16 – 2008.10.21), President of Episcopal Conference of Ukraine (1994 – 2008.10.21), Apostolic Administrator of Lutsk (Ukraine) (1996 – 1998.03.25), Cardinal-Priest of S. Sisto (2001.02.21 –...)</p><br>
<p>Michel Pierre Marie Mouïsse (2000.03.10 – 2004.03.05)</p><br>
<p>Carlo Roberto Maria Redaelli (2004.04.08 – 2012.06.28), (later Archbishop)</p><br>
<p>David Prescott Talley (2013.01.03 –...), Auxiliary Bishop of Atlanta (USA)</p><br>
<h2>Remains</h2><br>
<p>The remains of the Roman town, and more especially of the Roman camp, in spite of wanton vandalism, are among the most interesting ruins in northern Africa.</p><br>
<p>The ruins are situated on the lower terraces of the Aures Mountains, and consist of triumphal arches (one to Septimius Severus, another to Commodus), temples, aqueducts, vestiges of an amphitheatre, baths and an immense quantity of masonry belonging to private houses. To the north and east lie extensive cemeteries with the stones standing in their original alignments; to the west is a similar area, from which, however, the stones have been largely removed for building the modern village.</p><br>
<p>Of the temple of Aesculapius only one column is standing, though in the middle of the 19th century its façade was entire. The capitol or temple dedicated to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, which has been cleared of debris, has a portico with eight columns. On level ground about two-thirds of a mile from the centre of the ancient town stands the camp, its site now partly occupied by the penitentiary and its gardens. It measures 1,640 ft by 1,476 ft, and in the middle rise the ruins of a building commonly called, but incorrectly, the praetorium. This noble building, which dates from 268, is 92 ft long by 66 ft broad and 49 ft high; its southern façade has a splendid peristyle half the height of the wall, consisting of a front row of massive Ionic columns and an engaged row of Corinthian pilasters.</p><br>
<p>Behind this building (which was roofed), is a large court giving access to other buildings, one being the arsenal. In it have been found many thousands of projectiles. To the southeast are the remains of the baths. The ruins of both city and camp have yielded many inscriptions (Renier edited 1500, and there are 4185 in CIL viii); and, though a very large proportion are epitaphs of the barest kind, the more important pieces supply an outline of the history of the place. Over 2500 inscriptions relating to the camp have been deciphered. In a museum in the village are objects of antiquity discovered in the vicinity. In addition to inscriptions and statues, there are some fine mosaics found in 1905 near the arch of Septimius Severus. The statues include those of Aesculapius and Hygieia, taken from the temple of Aesculapius.</p><br>
<p>About 2 mi south of Lambessa are the ruins of Markuna, the ancient Verecunda, including two triumphal arches.</p><br>
<p>The Rakaia River is in the Canterbury Plains in New Zealand&#39;s South Island. The Rakaia River is one of the largest braided rivers in New Zealand. The Rakaia River has a mean flow of 203 m3/s and a mean annual seven-day low flow of 87 m3/s. In the 1850s, European settlers named it the Cholmondeley River, but this name lapsed into disuse.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>It rises in the Southern Alps, travelling 150 km in a generally easterly or southeasterly direction before entering the Pacific Ocean 50 km south of Christchurch. As it reaches the river-coast interface; a hapua forms.</p><br>
<p>For much of its journey, the river is a braided river, running through a wide shingle bed. Close to Mount Hutt, however, it is briefly confined to a narrow canyon known as the Rakaia Gorge.</p><br>
<p>The Rakaia River is bridged in two places. The busiest crossing is at the small town of Rakaia, 20 km from the river mouth, where State Highway 1 and the South Island Main Trunk Railway cross the river using separate bridges. These two bridges are New Zealand&#39;s longest road and rail bridges respectively, approximately 1.75 km long. A second bridge, much shorter and less used, spans the Rakaia Gorge.</p><br>
<p>The Central Plains Water Trust is proposing to take up to 40 m3/s of water from the Rakaia River as part of the Central Plains Water enhancement scheme.</p><br>
<p>The Rakaia River is a celebrated Chinook salmon fishery. It has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because it supports breeding colonies of the endangered black-billed gull. The river is also known for its large wrybill population which represents 73 percent of the total population. Other important bird species using the riverbed are black-fronted tern and banded dotterel.</p><br>
<p>The Rangitata River is one of the braided rivers that helped form the Canterbury Plains in southern New Zealand. It flows southeast for 120 km from the Southern Alps, entering the Pacific Ocean 30 km northeast of Timaru. The river has a catchment area of 1,773 km&sup2;, and a mean annual flow of 95 m3/s at Klondyke.</p><br>
<p>The Māori name "Rangitata" (Rakitata) has been variously translated as "day of lowering clouds", "close sky", and "the side of the sky".</p><br>
<p>The river formed the Rangitata Valley, in the center of the Southern Alps, and the on-location photography of the Edoras set from The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers, and The Return of the King was filmed in this valley, on and around Mount Sunday. Several remote sheep stations are located near Mount Sunday. These include Mesopotamia, Mt Potts, and Erewhon. Erewhon was named by Samuel Butler who was the first white settler to live at the Mesopotamia sheep station. Erewhon is also the name of a novel written by Butler anonymously in 1872.</p><br>
<p>Before the river enters the Canterbury Plains, part of it is diverted to the Rangitata Diversion Race (RDR) for irrigation and hydroelectric generation. The RDR was built between 2 April 1937 and 1944, and supplies water to the Montalto and Highbank schemes before joining the Rakaia River. The entry point has New Zealand&#39;s first acoustic fish fence, keeping salmon smolt in the river and preventing them ending up on farmland.</p><br>
<p>Towards its mouth, the river originally split into two streams, forming a large delta island (Rangitata Island). This island was crossed by State Highway 1 and the Main South Line railway between Ealing and Rangitata and thus was an island connected directly by New Zealand&#39;s main state highway and one of its primary railway lines. However, the south branch of this split has since been blocked, and the riverbed developed for agricultural purposes. Its course remains as a flood plain, but water does not normally flow here any longer.</p><br>
<p>The Rangitata is the most fished river in the Central South Island Region, having a self-sustaining Chinook salmon fishery. The salmon account for about 75 percent of angler activity on the river, other species fished are brown trout, rainbow trout and brook char.</p><br>
<p>On 23 December 1999, Fish and Game New Zealand lodged an application for a water conservation order on the Rangitata River. In June 2006, the water conservation order was gazetted.</p><br>
<p>A locomotive, DC 4686, ended up completely submerged in the river on 4 January 2002, after floodwater undermined a stopbank supporting the railway line, causing a derailment.</p><br>
<p>The Opihi River flows through south Canterbury, in New Zealand&#39;s South Island. It has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because it supports breeding colonies of the endangered black-billed gull.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The river flows south-east for 75 km, reaching the Pacific Ocean 10 km north of Timaru. The town of Fairlie lies on the river&#39;s banks.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The banks of the river around the settlement of Waitohi were possibly the site of the first powered heavier-than-air flight on March 31, 1903, when pioneer aviator Richard Pearse is reputed to have got his home-made machine airborne several months before the Wright Brothers.</p><br>
<p>Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) were introduced from California in the 1900s and persist today.</p><br>
<p>In 2000 Environment Canterbury approved the Opihi River Regional Plan for sustainable management of the resources of the river.</p><br>
<p>The Tekapo River flows occasionally through the Mackenzie Basin, Canterbury, in New Zealand&#39;s South Island, although the riverbed is now often dry in the upper reaches. It maintains a constant flow below the confluence of several tributaries, notably the Maryburn, Forks, and Grays rivers. The lower reaches  are popular with anglers chasing brown and rainbow trout, although recent infestation by the invasive algae didymo  has somewhat limited angling opportunities.</p><br>
<p>Originally, the river flowed southwest for 25 km from the southern end of Lake Tekapo before joining with the Pukaki River and flowing into the northern end of Lake Benmore. However, the water from Lake Tekapo is now diverted via a canal to Lake Pukaki as part of the Waitaki hydroelectric scheme. These lakes are used to store water, and occasionally during a particularly heavy snow melt or if the power stations or canal need servicing, water may be spilt from either the dam or canal back into the riverbed. These events are much anticipated by kayakers, to the extent that they have been known to re-shape parts of the riverbed to create "better" rapids.</p><br>
<p>The Pukaki River flows through the Mackenzie Basin, Canterbury, in New Zealand&#39;s South Island.</p><br>
<p>Originally, the river flowed southwest for 15 km from the southern end of Lake Pukaki before joining with the Tekapo River and flowing into the northern end of Lake Benmore. However, all water from Lake Pukaki is now diverted into a canal which is fed through three hydroelectric stations before being returned directly into Lake Benmore, as part of the Waitaki Hydroelectric scheme. Occasionally, water may be spilled down the riverbed when Lake Pukaki reaches its maximum height, or if a canal or power station requires servicing.</p><br>
<p>In 2010, Meridian Energy applied for resource consents to build a 35 MW power station at Pukaki&#39;s gate 18.</p><br>
<p>The Bealey River is a small river located in the Southern Alps of New Zealand. It is a tributary of the Waimakariri River. Its valley forms the eastern approach to Arthur&#39;s Pass. The river and the Bealey settlement are named for Samuel Bealey, a 19th-century Superintendent of Canterbury Province and pastoralist.</p><br>
<h2>Locomotive dumpsite</h2><br>
<p>In the first half of the 20th century, the New Zealand Railways Department (NZR) dumped a number of withdrawn locomotives and wagons in the river to stabilise its banks and prevent erosion, particularly around the Bealey River bridge. Some of these locomotives and wagons have been recovered by heritage groups with the aim of restoring them to operating condition, including WMR N 9 (later NZR N 453) by the Wellington and Manawatu Railway Trust in 2003. Most of the other locomotives and components have since been either buried or scrapped. The more substantially complete remains of ex-WMR N 10 (later NZR N 454) are believed to be buried in the river bed near Cora Lynn, further up the river.</p><br>
<p>During the early 1920s, NZR used a former quarry near Cora Lynn station as an open-air workshop to strip locomotives of useful parts before they were dumped. This quarry was host to a number of locomotive parts including the frame of V 132, which had been retrofitted with Walschaerts valve gear in 1898 as an experiment by NZR. Shortly after this frame was salvaged in 1997–98, Tranz Rail and the Department of Conservation initiated a clean-up operation in the old quarry, burying many of the locomotive parts there into the access embankment.</p><br>
<p>Similarly, NZR used the Bealey River as a place to scrap old wooden passenger coaches in the 1950s and 1960s. These carriages would be brought from Addington Railway Workshops in Christchurch, shunted into the riverbed, and then burnt to recover their metal parts for scrap or as spares for other operating vehicles.</p><br>
<h3>Other locomotive dumps</h3><br>
<p>Branxholme</p><br>
<p>Mokihinui River</p><br>
<p>Oamaru</p><br>
<p>Omoto</p><br>
<p>Waimakariri River</p><br>
<p>Westfield</p><br>
<p>Mararoa</p><br>
<p>The Ashley River / Rakahuri is in Canterbury Region of New Zealand. It flows generally southeastwards for 65 km before entering the Pacific Ocean at Waikuku Beach, Pegasus Bay north of Christchurch. The town of Rangiora is close to the south bank of the Ashley River. The river&#39;s official name was changed from Ashley River to the dual name Ashley River / Rakahuri by the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998.</p><br>
<p>Though the lower reaches of the river are braided, part of the upper river flows through a canyon known as the Ashley Gorge.</p><br>
<p>The river emanates from mountains in the west Lees Valley adjacent to Island Hills station and exits the hills at a gorge near Oxford township. It has tributaries of Duck Creek in this valley and is an accumulator of watershed between Lees Valley and Oxford township.</p><br>
<p>Behind Waikuku Beach is one of the largest, least modified estuaries in New Zealand. It is abundant in bird life, including the wrybill (Anarhynchus frontalis) and Black stilt (Himantopus novaezelandiae). Many migratory birds over-winter here.</p><br>
<p>Hooker Glacier is one of several glaciers close to the slopes of Aoraki / Mount Cook in the Southern Alps of New Zealand. It is not as large as its neighbour, the Tasman Glacier, measuring 11 kilometres  in length.</p><br>
<p>The glacier starts on the south-western slopes of Aoraki/Mt Cook, with its tributaries Sheila Glacier, Empress Glacier, and Noeline Glacier.</p><br>
<p>Hooker Glacier runs south from there until its terminus at Hooker Lake. The glacial water from the lake is the source of the Hooker River, a small tributary of the Tasman River, which flows into Lake Pukaki.</p><br>
<p>One of New Zealand&#39;s more accessible glaciers, the glacier and its terminus can be seen clearly from the end of the Hooker Valley Track. This easy walk to the glacier lake is the most popular in the region.</p><br>
<p>For serious trampers and mountaineers, there are three huts along the glacier further up the valley: Hooker Hut, Gardiner Hut, and Empress Hut.</p><br>
<p>The current glacier lake only started to form in the 1970s, left behind as Hooker Glacier retreated.</p><br>
<p>Like many of the glaciers in the Southern Alps, Hooker Glacier is rapidly melting, with the glacier lake projected to grow as the terminus retreats until it reaches the glacier bed about 4 kilometres upstream from the current terminus.</p><br>
<p>The Silvermine Mountains  are a mountain range situated in County Tipperary  in Ireland. The highest peak of the range is Slieve Ciamalta or Keeper Hill at 694 m high.</p><br>
<p>There are three Special Areas of Conservation in the Silvermine Mountains, Silvermine Mountains, Silvermine Mountains West and Keeper Hill.</p><br>
<p>The range is often referred to as the Silvermines Mountains or simply The Silvermines (both using Silvermines plural) however the recognized name is Silvermine (singular) Mountains.</p><br>
<p>The village of Silvermines is located to the north of Keeper Hill and has been a mining centre since the 14th century.</p><br>
<h2>Slieve Felim Way</h2><br>
<p>The Slieve Felim Way, a 43 km long-distance trail through the Silvermine and Slieve Felim Mountains has a trail-head in the village of Silvermines. It is designated as a National Waymarked Trail by the National Trails Office of the Irish Sports Council and is managed by Shannon Development and Coillte.</p><br>
<p>The Allan Water  is a river in central Scotland. Rising in the Ochil Hills, it runs through Strathallan to Dunblane and Bridge of Allan before joining the River Forth. It is liable to cause floods in lower Bridge of Allan.</p><br>
<p>It shares its name with a tributary of the River Teviot. The name is similar to the Ale Water in Berwickshire, the River Alness in Ross-shire, the Allander Water in Stirlingshire, the River Alne and the Ayle Burn in Northumberland, the River Ellen in Cumbria, and several names in the south of England, Wales and Cornwall. Ptolemy, who wrote his Geography about 150 AD, gave the names of some of these rivers as Alauna or Alaunos. Ekwall says that Alauna or Alaunos are British river names. Nicolaisen says that the name Allan is of Pre-Celtic Indo-European origin. Its original form was Alauna, from the Indo-European root *el-/ol-, meaning "to flow, to stream". Several European rivers and settlements have names that may come from that root. Others say that Alauna was a Celtic river goddess, also found in Brittany; Alaunus was a Gaulish god of medicine and prophesy.</p><br>
<p>Two broadside ballads refer to the "Allan Water". According to one, a Scottish ballad, the "Allan Waters wide and deep, and my dear Annys very bonny; Wides the Straith that lyes abovet, ift were mine Ide give it all for Anny." The other, more familiar, English ballad begins "On the banks of Allan Water" and relates the death of a millers daughter whose soldier lover proves untrue. This version, popularised by C. E. Horn in his comic opera, Rich and Poor (1812), is sung by Bathsheba Everdene at the sheepshearing supper in Thomas Hardy&#39;s novel Far From The Madding Crowd (1874). A similar rendition was recorded with church organ accompaniment by Italian singer Ariella Uliano in 2008.</p><br>
<h2>Industry</h2><br>
<p>The river and its tributaries were once extensively used to power mills and factories. The major tributaries, the Muckle Burn and River Knaik, are mainly in hilly sheep farming terrain and no significant industrial use was made of them.</p><br>
<p>The Danny Burn tributary of the Allan, the Wauk Mill N890081 appears to have been a small corn mill belonging to a local farm. Very little remains. (Pan around the same external link to find the other locations.)</p><br>
<p>Progressing downstream,the mill buildings and weir at Kinbuck NN790051 still exist but are derelict. The weir NN785040 and some large mill buildings NN783038 at Ashfield still exist but are largely derelict.</p><br>
<p>There are two substantial weirs in Dunblane, at NN770017, feeding the Springbank Mill NN770016, which still exists but is no longer a mill, and at NN780014.</p><br>
<p>Downstream of Dunblane, a weir at NS785996 fed the long derelict Lower Keir Mill at NS785994.</p><br>
<p>At Bridge of Allan there are still in existence three very substantial weirs, the upper of which, NS786981, formerly supplied the Airthrey Mills NS786968, while the middle (NS786977) weir was positioned to collect the outfall from the Airthrey Mills as well as the main flow of the river. The lower weir is at NS788976, and the middle and lower weirs supplied a changing assortment of mills and factories as recently as the 1950s. The area is now occupied by housing but many traces of the mill lades can still be seen, and the flow of water over the weirs remains impressive.</p><br>
<p>Dorney Lake  is a purpose-built rowing lake in England. It is near the village of Dorney, Buckinghamshire, and is around 3 km  west of Windsor and Eton, close to the River Thames.</p><br>
<p>The lake is privately owned and financed by Eton College, which spent £17 million developing it. Additional grants, totalling £500,000, were obtained from Sport England, UK Sport, the DCMS and SEEDA in order to build the lake&#39;s finish tower. The project was completed in 2006, after 10 years of construction. Although it is primarily for use by the school, the facilities are hired out for rowing, as well as for canoeing, dragon boating, open water swimming and triathlon.</p><br>
<h2>2012 Olympic venue</h2><br>
<p>The lake was used as the 2012 Summer Olympic venue for rowing and canoe sprint, and as the 2012 Summer Paralympic venue for rowing. For the duration of the Olympics, the lake was officially referred to as Eton Dorney. To provide for Olympic spectators, the existing facilities were enhanced to include 20,000 additional seats; most of these seats were temporary. Construction began in October 2009, following investigations by Oxford Archaeology, of enhancements to Dorney Lake, including a new cut-through between the competition lake and the return lane, a new bridge and an upgraded access road, funded by the Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA). During the Olympic events, Dorney Lake was staffed by around 3,500 personnel including volunteers; it could accommodate up to 30,000 spectators per day. A temporary bridge linked the Dorney Lake site to Windsor Racecourse, where a pick-up and drop-off point for Olympic spectators was established. Other access options existed for walkers and cyclists.</p><br>
<h2>Past events</h2><br>
<p>Dorney Lake has hosted the following international rowing events:</p><br>
<p>2005 Rowing World Cup (26–28 May)</p><br>
<p>2005 Coupe de la Jeunesse (29–31 July)</p><br>
<p>2006 World Rowing Championships (20–27 August)</p><br>
<p>2011 World Rowing Junior Championships (3–7 August)</p><br>
<p>2012 Summer Olympics (27 July – 12 August: rowing from 28 July to 4 August, then canoe sprint)</p><br>
<p>2012 Summer Paralympics (29 August – 9 September: rowing from 31 August to 2 September)</p><br>
<p>2013 Rowing World Cup (21–23 June)</p><br>
<h2>Lake specifications</h2><br>
<p>The lake&#39;s dimensions follow the FISA rules for a rowing lake suitable for hosting a World Rowing Championship, World Rowing Cup or Olympic regatta:</p><br>
<p>Stillwater, with consistent water conditions</p><br>
<p>2,200 m straight length for racing</p><br>
<p>8 rowing lanes, each 13.5 m wide</p><br>
<p>Minimum water depth of 3.5 m</p><br>
<p>A return channel allowing boats to move to the start, separated from the main lake by an island</p><br>
<h2>Home regattas</h2><br>
<p>Since the lake was opened, a number of annual regattas that were previously held on the River Thames have been transferred to the lake. These include the Marlow Regatta in June, the Metropolitan Regatta in May/June, and the Wallingford Regatta in May.</p><br>
<h2>Public access</h2><br>
<p>The public are allowed to use the grounds of Dorney Lake when sporting events are not being run. The two-kilometre-long flat, straight paths that run along each side of the main lake make it a popular venue for runners, skaters, and even cross-country skiers practising with roller skis. The picturesque landscape also makes it a popular location for dog walkers and youth out for fun.</p><br>
<p>The David Taylor Model Basin  is one of the largest ship model basins&mdash;test facilities for the development of ship design&mdash;in the world. DTMB is a field activity of the Carderock Division of the Naval Surface Warfare Center.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1896, David Watson Taylor designed and supervised construction of the Washington Navy Yard&#39;s Experimental Model Basin which was at that time the best facility in the world. That facility was a significant design testing capability before, during, and after World War I. Inadequacies in that facility led the navy to look for a new model capability.</p><br>
<p>The new navy modeling facility &mdash; named for David Taylor &mdash; was built in 1939 in today&#39;s community of Carderock just west of Bethesda, Maryland in Montgomery County. The Carderock facility contains multiple test basins designed for a variety of testing capabilities. DTMB has been a pervasive influence on naval architecture for 70 years.</p><br>
<h2>Technical capabilities</h2><br>
<p>Three adjoining sections comprise the Shallow Water Basin: deep water, shallow water, and a J-shaped turning basin used for steering maneuvers. Its carriage can provide speeds up to 18 knots.</p><br>
<p>The Deep Water Basin has a pneumatic wavemaker located at one end, and a wave absorbing beach at the other. This capability allows modeling of regular or irregular sea states. Located behind a movable section of the beach is a fitting out dry dock. Its carriage can provide speeds up to 20 knots.</p><br>
<p>The High-Speed Basin comprises two adjoining sections: a deep water section and a shallow water section. Wavemaking capability exists in this basin, and there are three large underwater viewing windows at different elevations which are set into the wall about mid-length. The high-speed carriages can provide complex motions for the model at speeds up to 50 knots.</p><br>
<h2>Computing</h2><br>
<p>The David Taylor Model Basin was an early adopter of computers, and an active site for computer technology. Represented by Betty Holberton, it was one of three government agencies present at the 1959 meeting where the computer language COBOL was created. It also had one of the two UNIVAC LARCs that were built.</p><br>
<h2>Significant naval contributions</h2><br>
<p>Antiparos  is a small island in the southern Aegean, at the heart of the Cyclades, which is less than one nautical mile  from Paros, the port to which it is connected with a local ferry. Saliagos island is the most ancient settlement in the Cyclades, and Despotiko, an uninhabited island in the southwest of Antiparos, is a place of great archaeological importance.</p><br>
<p>The Community of Antiparos was founded in 1914 and was promoted to a municipality in 2010 with the implementation of the Law "Kallikrates", under the principle of "each island a municipality". It occupies an area of 45.182 square km, including the island of Antiparos and Despotiko. It has, according to the 2011 census, 1,211 permanent residents and a density of 27 inhabitants per km². The island&#39;s economy is based on tourism, fishing, farming and less on agriculture in the plains. It is known for its distinctive Cycladic beauty with white houses, cobbled streets and beautiful flowers that thrive in the yards of the houses. It is a popular tourist resort in the summer for Greeks and European visitors, as well as land investors from the United States.</p><br>
<p>The main settlement lies at the northeastern tip of the island, opposite Pounda on the main island of Paros, whence a ferry sails for Antiparos harbour. The historical center is located in the Venetian castle of Antiparos, which is connected through the shopping streets in the picturesque coastal street. Other settlements are the famous resort of St. George in the southwest edge, Soros and Kampos and popular beaches in the wider area of the center are Psaralyki, the Sifneiko, Ag Spiridon and the camping beach. The most popular beaches are: Soros, Glyfa, Apantima, Monastiria.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The ancient name of the island was "Oliaros", a word probably of Phoenician origin meaning "wooded mountain." Later the island was named "Antiparos" Situated within walking distance from Paros.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and topography</h2><br>
<p>The island of Antiparos is located 0.8 nautical mi (1.5 km) southwest of Paros, separated by the Strait of Antiparos, known as Amfigeio. It lies 8 km from the port of Parikia from which the passenger ferry runs. The maximum length of the island is 11 km from north to south, while the maximum width reaches 4.5 km. The total area is estimated at 37 to 38 km. And the highest peak, St. Elias, in the middle of the island, is at 308 m. The main town is called simply Antiparos.</p><br>
<p>Antiparos is a volcanic rock and dry climate with high moisture, and morphology favors the development of strong winds. The flowers thrive in the region are mainly bougainvillea that adorn the gardens, houses and shops. The morphology of Antiparos is characterised essentially flat, with many small hilly peaks, while the vegetation of the island is low.</p><br>
<p>The island of Antiparos is surrounded by many small uninhabited islands with great historical and archaeological interest, such as Tsimintiri the Round, the Double, snow, Revmatonisi, the Red and Black Tourlos. Particularly well known in the international community is Despotiko, an uninhabited island west of Antiparos, where in recent years excavations of great archaeological importance have been carried out.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The island economy is based largely on tourism: the income from visits to the Cave of Antiparos form a very big part of the budget of the municipality. Most people work in the shops, restaurants and accommodation on the island during the tourist season from Easter to October, with the remainder funded by the Employment Service, or undertaking technical and manual jobs. The island&#39;s economy is also helped by agriculture and animal husbandry, and fisheries.</p><br>
<p>Since the 1970s and 1980s, Antiparos has become a popular holiday destination, particularly for nudists, attracted by the remote and sandy beaches. The best known is the Camping, or Theologians beach, at the north of the island, opposite the uninhabited island of Diplo. The far end of the town beach is also nudist, as is the Perigiali beach. However most of the other beaches on Antiparos are textile. Since the 1990s there has been a steady development due to its proximity to Paros, and the infrastructure has been improved to accommodate the growing influx of tourists.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>There are extensive Neolithic remains on the island. The first excavations were those made by the traveller Theodore Bent in 1884, who opened up some 40 graves in two cemeteries. In 1889 Christos Tsountas excavated in Despotiko, revealing Cycladic cemeteries.</p><br>
<p>From 1964-5 a Neolithic settlement was excavated on the island of Saliagos by Colin Renfrew and J D Evans for the British School at Athens. Stone foundations of buildings, obsidian arrowheads and pottery were found, together with a marble figurine known as the Fat lady of Saliagos.</p><br>
<p>Classical remains are concentrated on the island of Despotiko. The Isle of Antiparos was identified with ancient Prepesintho, according to the extant writings of Strabo and Pliny.</p><br>
<p>In 1959 Nikos Zafiropoulos began excavations at Zoumparia and Mantra, on the northeast coast, where they were architectural Doric temple from the ancient times, dating to 500 BC.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, the archaeologist Yiannos Kourayos began new excavations at Mantra, bringing to light some of the ancillary buildings of a sanctuary. The temple itself has not so far been discovered, though a number of architectural elements from an early Doric temple have been discovered built into later walls. The main finding so far have been an elongated building, consisting of five consecutive parallel rooms. In the southern room archaic materials of Eastern Aegean, Rhodian, Cypriot and Egyptian origin have been discovered.</p><br>
<p>Many marble sculptures were found, including two archaic kouros head, a naked male statue, part of the Archaic period perirrantiriou inscribed with the inscription "Marda anethiken". Among the significant findings include the built-square marble altar dedicated to Hestia Isthmus of classical times and which is testimony to one of the deities worshiped in the Cyclades.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>During Byzantine times and down to the 13th century, information about the history of Antiparos is scarce. However, in 1207, Antiparos was seized by the Venetian nobleman Marco I Sanudo, and it remained under the house of Sanudo down to the second half of the 14th century, when it passed to the House of Sommaripa. In 1480 it passed to the Venetian house of the Pisani.</p><br>
<p>The Venetian episode came to an end in 1537, when Antiparos and the rest of the Cyclades fell to the Ottomans, and it remained under Ottoman rule until the Greek War of Independence in 1821, apart from a period of the Orlov Revolt in 1770–74 when it was ruled by the Russians, who removed many of the magnificent stalactites from the cave to the Hermitage Museum in Russia.</p><br>
<p>In 1770 the French botanist Joseph Tornefort reported that Antiparos numbered 78 houses about 200 residents</p><br>
<p>The major catastrophe was in 1794, when Kefalonians and Mani pirates arrived on the island and plundered, and kidnapped the daughter of the Venetian vice-Consul.</p><br>
<p>The Antiparians were among the first in the Cyclades to take part in the War of Independence and in 1832 officially became part of the Greek state.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, the southwestern tip of the island near the Agios George, was used as a secret submarine base, but after the war it became once more a tranquil place, though now growing as a tourist village.</p><br>
<p>Antiparos was known to the wider Greek public in 1960 and through the Greek cinema, where workshops hosted by Finos Films in the heart of the movie "Madalena" by helping to enhance its natural beauty and historical landscape. Since then, the island became a popular tourist destination for Greek and foreign tourists in the summer and the economy of the town started oriented tourism development.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The architecture, like all the Cycladic islands, requires strict regulations to preserve the uniformity of the Cyclades, which is composed of the typical white houses with blue doors and windows, yard and gardens decorated with bougainvillea and other flowers. Often these characteristics are consistent with the existence of stone or alleys of the neighborhood or the fences of the churchyard.</p><br>
<p>The castle was built in 1440 and seems to have a very specific and unique style of architecture. The houses form a compact complex with 24 two-story houses forming the outer zone, while at the centre there is a motte or mound, till recently occupied by a water reservoir. Among the houses there are three churches and the old aqueduct. The houses have mostly been turned round to face outwards where they act as shops.</p><br>
<h2>Sights</h2><br>
<p>In the center of the island is the famous cave of Antiparos, one of the most beautiful and mysterious caves in the world. The cave has been used as a natural shelter from the Neolithic period onwards. The area was also used for pottery, and for the worship of the goddess Artemis, while at the entrance to the site is the plain but magnificent church of Agios Ioannis Spiliotis.</p><br>
<h3>The cave of Antiparos</h3><br>
<p>The cave is very extensive, and extends at several levels.</p><br>
<p>The lyric poet Archilochus of Paros is said to have left an inscription in the cave. In 1673, marquis de Nointel, French ambassador to the Ottoman Empire visited the cave for three days with numerous companions and celebrated mass on Christmas Day in it. Later visitors who carved their names included Lord Byron and the first king of Greece, Otto.</p><br>
<p>During the German occupation, part of the cave was destroyed.</p><br>
<p>The cave is fully exploited in the second half of the 1900s with funds from the EU by erecting barriers, building adequate steps, installing lighting, security cameras and loudspeakers to inform visitors.</p><br>
<h3>Castle (Kastro) of Antiparos</h3><br>
<p>The Venetian Castle of Antiparos is a typical example of the fortified settlements established in the Cyclades the period of Latin in 13th-16th century. Its construction dates to the mid-15th century when the Venetian Giovanni Loredano decided to marry Mary Sommaripa of Antiparos.</p><br>
<p>The original version had a ‘motte’ (mound) at the centre and houses round the perimeter. The houses were built as one continuous block construction, the outer walls providing both the defensive wall of the fortified settlement. The only entrance was at the south wing.</p><br>
<p>Inside the main settlement the houses developed as three-storey structures, each having a separate entrance which leads to an external staircase. In the course of the settlement was extended outside the south wing to form a rectangular ring called "Xopyrga" and within the original enclosure around the base of the circular tower.</p><br>
<p>In modern times, the original architectural style of the castle has altered, with the church of Christ being inserted as a religious element, while the central mound was used as a water tank tower. Today, the homes retain a satisfactory level of their original features, despite the collapse of the upper floors, and any intervention required permission from the archaeological department. Today most homes are developed in one with two floors and have a maximum ground-like trapdoor. Many now face outwards and have become shops facing onto the main street.</p><br>
<p>An integral part of the castle of Antiparos are the small bats that come with dusk and fly around the tower to the east.</p><br>
<h2>Infrastructure</h2><br>
<p>The town hall of Antiparos lies with the Multi-alley clinic in a commercial road just before the castle, near the Plaza Roussos, and which took its name from the writer of her film "Madeleine."</p><br>
<p>Any waste transported to the island a special place in Paros and sewerage and biological treatment have been included in the NSRF to sponsor the Egnatia Odos.</p><br>
<p>The island has a modern road construction and rehabilitation of the coastal road. The focus of artistic and political events is the stone square of Agia Marina.</p><br>
<p>The elementary school has a youth club for young people.</p><br>
<h2>Church</h2><br>
<p>The Antiparos church belongs to the Bishopric Paronaxia.</p><br>
<h2>Cinema</h2><br>
<p>Madalena (film)</p><br>
<p>Lake Coleridge is located in inland Canterbury, in New Zealand&#39;s South Island. Located 35 km to the northwest of Methven, it has a surface area of 47 km&sup2;. The lake is situated in an over-deepened valley formed by a glacier over 20,000 years ago in the Pleistocene era. It currently has no natural outflows. There is a little settlement at the lake.</p><br>
<p>The lake is located to the north of the Rakaia River, and is the site of one of the countrys earliest hydroelectric schemes, completed in 1914 and built mainly to supply power to Christchurch. The project makes use of the difference in altitude between the lake and river (the lake is 150 metres higher). Both the Harper and Wilberforce Rivers have had some of their flow diverted into the lake, with up to 100% of the Harpers flow diverted for the Lake Coleridge Power Station.</p><br>
<p>The Lake was named by the chief surveyor of the Canterbury Association, Joseph Thomas, on a sketch map prepared in early 1849. It commemorates Edward Coleridge and William Coleridge, who were first cousins and both nephews of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, two early members of the Canterbury Association. Two further members of the Coleridge family joined the Canterbury Association in June 1851, i.e. after the lake had been named: John Taylor Coleridge (a brother of Edward), and John Coleridge, one of John Taylor&#39;s sons.</p><br>
<p>The lake was the epicentre for the 6.5 magnitude earthquake that struck on 26 June 1946.</p><br>
<p>Sucia Island is located 2.5 mi north of Orcas Island in the San Juan Islands, San Juan County, Washington, United States. It is the largest of an archipelago of ten islands including Sucia Island, Little Sucia, Ewing, Justice, Herndon, the Cluster Islands islets, and several smaller, unnamed islands. The group of islands is about 2.5 mi in length and just short of a half mile wide. Sucia island is roughly the shape of a hand. The total land area of all islands is 2.74 km² . The main island of Sucia Island by itself is 2.259 km² . There was a permanent population of four persons as of the 2000 census, all on Sucia Island. Sucia Island State Park is a Washington State Marine Park.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Sucia Island&#39;s name originated with the Spanish Captain Francisco de Eliza, on his map of 1791. He named it "Isla Sucia". Sucia in Spanish means "dirty" or in a nautical sense "foul". This word was chosen because the shore was deemed dangerous due to reefs and hidden rocks.</p><br>
<p>These reefs and broken shorelines are from a geologic folding of the Earth&#39;s crust, which brought many interesting marine fossils to the surface. Some good examples can be found on the southeast arm of Sucia Island.</p><br>
<p>The isolated coves and bays of Sucia Island once served the Lummi Indians in their seal hunting days. They later provided excellent hideouts in the 1800s for smugglers of illegal Chinese laborers, as well as for hiding illegally imported wool and opium. Still later, the islands played a large role in rum-running during liquor Prohibition of the 1920s and 1930s, and in recent years they have figured in drug trafficking.</p><br>
<p>The cluster of Sucia Islands was purchased in 1960 by the Puget Sound Interclub Association and later donated to the State of Washington for protection as a Marine State Park.</p><br>
<h2>Activities</h2><br>
<p>Camping</p><br>
<p>Bird watching</p><br>
<p>Hiking</p><br>
<p>Rock climbing</p><br>
<p>Kayaking</p><br>
<p>Boating</p><br>
<p>Fishing</p><br>
<p>Scuba diving</p><br>
<p>Crabbing</p><br>
<h2>Anchorages</h2><br>
<h3>Shallow Bay</h3><br>
<p>Shallow Bay on the island&#39;s west side is protected from all but westerly winds and waves. There are seven mooring buoys and room for 40-50 small pleasure craft in this anchorage. There are beaches on three sides including a sandy beach to the north. "Pebble" beach in the center is the access point to the camping and moorage pay box, as well as a large group camping site with a covered eating area and environmentally friendly composting out-houses. True to its name, Shallow Bay averages 12 ft deep. The anchor holding is good in sand but may be more rocky towards the center and mouth of the bay.</p><br>
<h3>Echo Bay</h3><br>
<p>Echo Bay is directly opposite the island&#39;s narrow isthmus from Shallow Bay and the largest of the anchorages, and the most exposed, particularly to southeast winds. There are a number of mooring buoys close to a pebble beach.</p><br>
<h3>Fossil Bay</h3><br>
<p>Fossil Bay is one of the most popular anchorages, particularly for small boats that prefer to tie up to one of two docks rather than anchor or pick up a mooring ring. Fossil Bay is an inlet that opens to the southeast.</p><br>
<h3>Fox Cove</h3><br>
<p>Fox Cove lies just west of and can be seen from Fossil Bay. Fox Cove is bordered by Ev Henry Finger point and Little Sucia island.</p><br>
<h3>Ewing Cove</h3><br>
<p>Ewing Cove is between the northeast end of Sucia island and Ewing Island. There is room for several boats at anchor or at a mooring buoy. The pebble beach at Ewing Cove is at the end of a 2.1 mi trail to the center of the island.</p><br>
<p>The Sierra Madre Occidental is a major mountain range system of the North American Cordillera, that runs northwest–southeast through Northwestern and Western Mexico, and along the Gulf of California. The Sierra Madre is part of the American Cordillera, a chain of mountain ranges  that consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western "backbone" of North America, Central America, South America and Antarctica.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Spanish name sierra madre means "mother mountains" and occidental means "western" in English, with these being the "Western Mother Mountains". To the east, from the Spanish oriental meaning "eastern" in English, the Sierra Madre Oriental range or "Eastern Mother Mountains" run generally parallel the Sierra Madre Occidental along eastern Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico.</p><br>
<p>The range extends from northern Sonora state near the Mexico-USA border at Arizona, southeastwards to the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and Sierra Madre del Sur ranges. The high plateau that is formed by the range is cut by deep river valleys. This plateau is formed from volcanic rock overlying a basement of metamorphic rock.</p><br>
<p>This uplift has caused changes in weather patterns; increased rainfall occurring in the mountains has provided areas where ecosystems can form in wetter areas than surrounding land. This water-source forms watersheds that provide the arid surroundings with water that makes it possible to irrigate and farm crops. The wet ecosystems are islands of biodiversity, differing significantly from what would otherwise be a desert landscape. Oak forests are the predominant plant life and extend into the low land deserts.</p><br>
<p>This forest and canyon land provided a place for a variety of indigenous people to live, until Spanish settlers with associated Mestizos came into the area to found towns for the silver mines in the area. The major industries in the area now are agriculture and forestry, which have become contentious because of land degradation and the native population&#39;s opposition to these practices.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The range trends from the north to southeast. Canyons cut by the rivers of the wet western slopes exist in addition to those of the northeast slopes, notably the Copper Canyon.</p><br>
<h3>Location</h3><br>
<p>The range runs parallel to the Pacific coast of Mexico, from just south of the Arizona-Sonora border southeast through eastern Sonora, western Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Durango, Zacatecas, Nayarit, Jalisco, Aguascalientes to Guanajuato, where it joins with the Sierra Madre del Sur and the Eje Volcánico Transversal (Transverse Volcanic Axis) of central Mexico after crossing 1,250 km. The mountains range from 300 km from the Gulf of California in the north, but begin to approach within 50 km of the Pacific in the south. These mountains are generally considered to be part of the much larger American cordillera, the mountains extending from Alaska down to these across Western North America.</p><br>
<h3>Regions</h3><br>
<p>The Sierra Tarahumara or Tarahumara range is the name for the region of the Sierra Madre beginning at the Durango border and extending north. This name comes from the Tarahumara natives. This is a dramatic landscape of steep mountains formed by a high plateau that has been cut through with canyons including Copper Canyon, larger and, in places, deeper than the Grand Canyon. This plateau has an average elevation of 2,250 m with most of the more eroded canyons on the western slope, due to the higher moisture content.</p><br>
<p>The highest elevations occur in the Tarahumara range. The exact elevations of the highest peaks are not known within accurate enough ranges to determine the relative elevation of peaks. The highest point is probably Cerro Mohinora, located at 25&deg;57&prime;N latitude, 107&deg;03&prime;W longitude. Estimates for the height of the mountain start around 3,040 m and go up to 3,300 m. However, Cerro Barajas, at 26&deg;24&prime;N latitude, 106&deg;5&prime;W longitude, may be as high as 3,300 m although other sources give 3,170 m as the elevation. Cerro Gordo, at 23&deg;12&prime;N latitude, 104&deg;57&prime;W longitude, may have an elevation between 3,350 m and 3,340 m.</p><br>
<p>The southern end of the mountains may be referred to as the Sierra Huichola. In this area the Sierra Madre begin to give way to the basin and range province. Subranges of this area include the Sierra de Alica and the Sierra Pajaritos both in Nayarit.</p><br>
<h3>Water</h3><br>
<p>The mountains act as a source of water, in an otherwise arid environment from the increased precipitation from the mountain range. As such, rivers that have headwaters in the mountains provide water for irrigation in the surrounding lands. The need for water to irrigate prompted the construction of dams, which has been the source of several environmental concerns in the area.</p><br>
<p>As the northern end of the mountains are more arid, the Yaqui River, which drains that area is an important source of irrigation in the state of Sonora. The Yaqui drains into the Gulf of California as do the Humaya River in Sinaloa and the Fuerte River further south. The Río Grande de Santiago drains 100000 km from the southern slopes of the Sierra Madre. Along the more arid eastern slopes of the mountains, the Nazas River and Aguanaval River drain the mountains into a closed basin. These mountains supply 90% of the water used for irrigation within the watershed. North of this system is the Conchos River which drains into the Rio Grande.</p><br>
<p>Along many rivers the arid conditions have caused courses to be dammed to provide water for irrigation. These dams have caused concerns along with those caused by other activities. The Yaqui has been dammed with three large reservoirs along its course. and the El Cajón Dam (Mexico) upstream from it. To provide irrigation water for farming the dry basin, the Nazas river was dammed in the 1930s and 40s. This has led to the former drainage lakes in the area drying up, and soil depletion from the elimination of the river as a source of soil. Due to the continued logging in the area, erosion on the slopes of hillsides has increased.</p><br>
<h3>Human</h3><br>
<p>Numerous small populations live in Copper Canyon, some of them around old missions. Many settlements consist of single families or small family groups near agricultural fields. There are also a few towns of note, including Creel, Chihuahua, with 5000 inhabitants; it serves as a stop on the train line. South of Copper Canyon is the town of El Salto, Durango, situated along highway 40. To the west is Copala, Sinaloa.</p><br>
<p>To the South live the indigenous Cora people in the towns of Jesús María and La Mesa del Nayar. In addition, 1000 people live in the village of Huajimic in Nayarit. The Bolaños River valley of Jalisco is populated with mining communities, such as San Martín de Bolaños, which has a population of around 3000.</p><br>
<p>Few paved roads cross the mountains, meaning that travel times can be long, even between cities that are relatively close. In the north, Mexico Federal Highway 16 connect Hermosillo, Sonora and La Junta, Chihuahua. In the mountains the La Entrada al Pacifico Corridor is an incomplete road intended to connect Los Mochis, Sinaloa and Chihuahua. Durango and Mazatlan are connected by highway 40, around 24 degrees north latitude.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Sierra Madre Occidental is a high plateau of volcanic rock that is eroded in areas to reveal a basement composed of plutonic and sedimentary rocks underlying the two groups of extrusive volcanics. The lower of these groups is a series of volcanic rocks formed by lava flows. The surface of the plateau is made up of a second series of volcanic ignimbrites, covered mostly by clay rich organic soils. Some intrusions in the area have deposited ore veins that are commercially viable.</p><br>
<p>The landscape was shaped after rock placement. Rivers cut valleys into the plateau, following folds in the rocks. Rock have been broken off of the slopes, forming rocky sides. The bedrock is covered by the clay rich soils, except in eroded areas, where water carries away deposits leaving a stony surface.</p><br>
<h3>Geological history</h3><br>
<p>The basement is thought to be Older North American basement, especially in the North, The northern extent of the Sierra Madre is the Cortés Terrane, although the northern extreme of this contains a small portion of the Carborca Terrane. Some of this area has a series of Paleozoic sedimentary sequences from a deep marine environment underlying it, which considered by some to be part of the Cotes Terrane and by others to be transported. In some areas distinct sedimentary rocks can be identified by shallow-water Silurian and Mississippian sedimentary rocks underlying deep-water Pennsylvanian and Permian, which are divided by Mississippian rhyolite. The Permian clastics contain some detrital rock that sit alongside low-grade metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks with serpentinite.</p><br>
<p>South of the Cortes and Carborca Terranes is the San José de García Terrane, which is a combination of Cretaceous arc volcanics and volcaniclastics, which may be thrusting over the Cortes terrane. The southern part of the range is made up of the Guerrero Composite Terrane, a large body, which is actually a complex of five different subterranes, although not all of these are within the main body of the Sierra Madre. The main subterranes of the Guerrero Composite Terrane that are within the Sierra Madre are the Tahue and Zihuatanejo terranes. a marine basin which separated the island arc that came to form the Guerrero terrane from the accretions that came to form the Sierra Madre terrane. It contains a lower formation made up of pillow basalts with pillow breccias, tuffs, and shales underlying a group of pelagic limestones, oozes, and turbidites.</p><br>
<p>Covering the southern basement are sedimentary and metamorphised sedimentary rocks containing argillite, limestone, volcanic schist, slate, and greywacke which were exposed in the canyon of the Santiago River. Near these sediments late Oligocene to early Miocene granite and granodiorite intrusive bodies occur. A possible cause of this is that these bodies were roof pendants which were uplifted by plutons. Mesozoic limestone also occurs in northern portion of the mountains, mostly from the Cretaceous.</p><br>
<p>Towards the end of the Cretaceous, the Laramide orogeny increased the activity of magmatism in the area, forming the first major igneous series in the area. The igneous series are made up of formations of plutonic and volcanic rock, which would later be exposed. Interbedded with these rocks are sedimentary deposit rocks. In the center of the range, some of these rock have been deformed by tectonic forcing that occurred at the same time. The southern part of the range contains none of the volcanism that is apparent in the northern range. These formations ended in the Paleocene. Eocene volcanism formed a series of andesitic and rhyolitic formations in the area, with spatial and temporal variations throughout. Most of the gold and silver deposits are also in these rocks.</p><br>
<p>In the Oligocene, ash flows became the predominant deposit of the area, with interbedded lava flows between. These ash flows began the second series of high magmatism formations. The ignimbrite flare-up formed a series of ignimbrite formations, layered one atop another, Three of these calderas are in Copper Canyon. The lava has formed a series of mafic rock that form the Southern Cordilleran Basaltic Andesite Suite. The tuffs are above a thick formation of lava rock. Around five or six units have been identified, mostly around the Copper Canyon area. These tuffs have allowed wide-ranging correlation with formations in other geographical areas, for example Death Valley.</p><br>
<p>During the Miocene, three periods of volcanism marked separate events in the Sierras. Each period is marked by different volcanic processes. The first was a continuation of the Oligocene flare-up, which lasted through the early Miocene. This may be a distinct second occurrence of the same process, placing silica-rich lava above Oligocene rocks. Episodes of volcanism continued into the Quaternary.</p><br>
<h3>Structures</h3><br>
<p>The Sierras are believed to be a thick core covered by volcanics and eroded by numerous rivers. Some have suggested that the basement of the mountains have numerous intrusions made by mafic magma. The surface of the plateau is almost exclusively from the second series of flows causing the rock that is most visible to be ignimbrites with lava flow layers. The region has a general strike from just west of north to just south of east.</p><br>
<p>Faults in the area tend to be younger than the upper volcanics, excluding those associated with calderas, but do occur in distinct periods. The large faults along the eastern slope have caused the slope to be made up of large escarpments that face into the interior basins. These faults are commonly covered by alluvium and basalt, making them difficult to discern, but can be found in certain fault blocks.</p><br>
<p>Grabens have formed in the north, and some of these are filled with volcanic and sedimentary floors, The faulting decreases in the center of the range where the faults are mostly small normal faults, but increases once again on the western slope. In fact, the major normal faults tend to diverge around the center of the core and join at either end. Some of these faults may have allowed ignimbrites to erupt from the surface, and so there may be some association between the ignimbrite occurrence and faults; this can be used to find out information about different kinds of basement rock present.</p><br>
<p>There are two faults dividing the Sierra Madre from the central Mexican Plateau. The more southern one is the north–south Aguascalientes fault extending 150 km from Altos de Jalisco to near Zacatecas, where it joins the more northern northwest–southeast trending San Luis–Tepehuanes fault extending from Guanajuato to Durango. The southern boundary of the Sierra Madre Occidental with the Jalisco block is a series of folds, thrust, and left lateral faults date from the middle Miocene. This may be evidence for a left transpressional shear zone. The area between this boundary and the Aguascalientes fault is filled with numerous grabens and half-grabens, as well an east–west left shear zone, the El Roble shear zone. At the west end of these grabens and half-grabens are the Pochotitan and the more northerly San Pedro fault systems, which form the western boundary of the faults in the southern mountains. In the north there is an unknown boundary between the Cortes Terrane and the Guerrero Composite Terrane. Some theorize that this is a section of the Mojave–Sonora Megashear, but this theory is not universally accepted; however, the Megashear is important, and, in fact, is necessary for reconstructions of the opening of the Gulf of California, as of 2003.</p><br>
<h3>Mineral deposits</h3><br>
<p>On a smaller scale, mineral deposits are distributed in formations of the Sierra Madre, although the events that placed these deposits vary throughout the mountains. The Guerrero composite terrane contains many of the economic deposits, often found in ore bodies younger than the Cretaceous.</p><br>
<p>Gold and silver deposits most commonly occur in the altered andesites of the early volcanics, These are believed to be caused by later intrusions into the early flows. Fissure-vein deposits have been divided into two groups of fissure vein deposits, which are divided geographically into an eastern and western series. In the east, the gold and silver are accompanied by lead and zinc. In the south, the Bolaños mine district is contained with the Bolaños Graben. Some also occur as epithermal deposits. Also, some gold occurs along with copper in Cenozoic iron-oxide skarn and replacement deposits along the Pacific.</p><br>
<p>In addition to gold and silver and their related deposits, tin, iron, and mercury occur, sometimes in later units, small deposits of cassiterite. Typically these deposits are divided from overlying ignimbrites by breccia, which may also contain ore. Many of these are thought to be hydrothermal deposits To the east of these units is a belt of more mercury deposits, followed by another belt of manganese deposits, although these deposits are mostly limited to Chihuahua and Hidalgo. Iron occurs in three different regions placed by different mechanisms. Along the Pacific there the numerous skarn and replacement deposits mentioned above with relation to gold. Iron occurs in Durango in the form of magnetite lava flows, which are often surrounded by smaller hematite deposits, thought to be ash flows. There is also a belt of iron deposits further east.</p><br>
<h3>Soil</h3><br>
<p>Most soil in the mountains is covered by an organic rich layer over layers rich in clay. Soils are commonly phaeozems that are up to 100 cm. Due to the high clay contents, which block water from being absorbed into the soil, larger rock particles in the soil help reduce runoff and soil losses from erosion. Areas that are covered in stone are known as lithosols and make up most of the remaining surface in the mountains, Acidic soils may have lower calcium content, leading to lower plant soil quality. Soils along the eastern slopes have increased organic content and a clay heavy layer that is developed more than those of the more arid eastern lands. The thickness of soil layers also increases.</p><br>
<p>Problems with soil degradation have been aggravated by the cultivation of drug crops, leading to deforestation of many areas. Other problems include overgrazing, which has led to terracing from cattle paths and the formation of a soil crust, and soil acidification, which poses a risk to some grasslands as of 2002.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The climate varies considerably between the northern and southern extents of this long mountain range. Seasonal variations also occur due to the presence of large bodies of warm water delivering warm damp air from each side of the range. This region undergoes a seasonal variety with two wet seasons, including a summer monsoon, and two dry seasons each year.</p><br>
<h3>Temperature, Pressure, and Wind</h3><br>
<p>Air pressure changes in Northwestern Mexico and the Southwest United States are the main causes of seasonal variation in the Sierra Madre. A high pressure area that rests over the mountains in the winter begins to move north of the mountains into New Mexico during the month of June. The high pressure begins to breakdown and move south during September or October; however, the breakdown is usually at a slower pace than the movement north. This high pressure belt is associated with the mechanics that form the Bermuda High.</p><br>
<p>The climate in the mountains is mild. Summer temperatures maintain a constant level. Maximum temperatures are typically in July at around 31 C Below freezing temperatures can occur in the higher mountains, with precipitation occurring as snowfall certain times of year.</p><br>
<p>During the summer monsoon, wind patterns undergo large scale changes. As the high pressure moves north, air is pulled off the Gulf of Mexico, bringing easterly winds aloft to the mountains. The mountains cause convection during the following monsoon season, during which nocturnal winds at low levels in the atmosphere move moisture overnight. After the high pressure breaks down, wind patterns return to those prior to the monsoon season.</p><br>
<h3>Precipitation and Humidity</h3><br>
<p>Precipitation varies on both annual and seasonal scales in the Sierra Madre. Annual differences in regional climate are associated with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation with El Niño years leading to a wetter climate. Monsoon rains come to the Sierra Madre in June, as the high pressure area moves north, leading to wet summer seasons. This causes east winds bringing moisture from the Gulf of Mexico. On the western side of the mountains, which are affected by the largest change in precipitation between the dry season and monsoon season, in the monsoon season rainfall can exceed 30 cm in a single month. The southern region receives more of the rainfall than the northern. Much of this precipitation occurs as tropical storms. As the high pressure over New Mexico breaks down, rainfall in the Sierra Madre ends. Because of the monsoon, the summer accounts for the majority of rainfall in the area. The spring and fall dry season separate out a weaker wet season in the winter. In addition to increasing in the southern ranges of the mountains, rainfall increases in the higher elevations of the Sierra Madre Occidental.</p><br>
<p>Humidity in the mountains varies at wide levels as does rainfall. In the early morning before dawn, the air is almost saturated (often over 90% relative humidity) near the mountain tops with low clouds over the range. Lower in the range, air is not as near saturated in the morning. Seasonal variation in humidity is also present with average May and June relative humidity around 50%, with 25% possible during the day. Also during the day, relative humidity drops and cloud levels rise as temperatures rise. The humidity of the range is also influenced by the same seasonal changes as rainfall. In the dry season dew points are low at high elevations (500 hPa), around −22 °C in the south of the range and −24 °C to −26 °C in the north in May. In June, dew points begin to increase from the May levels up to −20 °C in the North and −16 °C in the south. By July these dew points are at −14 °C throughout the range. The range allows higher dew points throughout these periods than the surrounding low lands. This rise in humidity accompanies the monsoon.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The mountains create a diverse setting for plants and animals by creating a different set of conditions from the surroundings. The Sierra Madre Occidental pine-oak forests are found at elevations of 1,500 - throughout the range, but the forests in the mountains vary by elevation and place in the range. This ecoregion is noted for its high biodiversity and large number of endemic species, and for allowing some species to extend their range.</p><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>The dominant plants vary across the range, and the habitat that they present varies from scattered woodland to both deciduous and coniferous forest.</p><br>
<p>The elevation and latitude in the range are the major determining factors in the dominant plants. Oaks dominate the lower reaches of the mountains, where stands grow down to about 1,000 m. Some oak species even continue into the surrounding ecosystems. In the Western slopes of the range, cloud forest also occurs, mostly on mid-elevation slopes with little exposure to wind or sun in the southern end of the range. At higher elevations pines begin to grow alongside the oaks, and pines begin to dominate the oaks at higher elevations. At high elevations and in the north, mixed conifer forests become the dominant ecosystem. These forests are composed primarily of pines and firs, which begin to grow at these elevations. There are also grasslands on some mountain tops, surrounded by the forest that occur in those areas.</p><br>
<p>Plants in the area typically have large responses to the change in climate with each season. Monsoon season is the largest of these effects, with leaf buds following only a few months after the rains begin. Flowering season occurs in the months preceding the summer monsoon. This is only the peak flowering season, with plants flowering throughout the year. Due to the early flowering, fruit is ripe and seeds are dispersed at the beginning of the rains. There are also areas where plants have little response to the seasons, particularly those areas that experience moist conditions, caused by the elevations. These plants may maintain leaves through times when other areas are in the dry season, during which most deciduous trees have no leaves.</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<p>The mountains are often a corridor for species allowing more diversity in the area, by combining species from different regions. Animals typically associated with arid and mountainous habitats share the mountains with species associated with habitats further south.</p><br>
<p>There are many carnivorous and omnivorous mammals native to the area, although several are extirpated or are part of threatened populations. The Mexican wolf&#39;s range in the mountains is limited to the foothills of Durango or may have been extirpated the black bear population is small, is confirmed extinct. Jaguar and ocelot are also now rare. On the eastern slopes there are American badger, coyote and gray fox that live across the mountains. Raccoons, hog-nosed skunk, and hooded skunk live in the mountains. The white-nosed coati lives on the western slopes, and the ring-tailed cat lives throughout. Many species of bats live in the mountains also.</p><br>
<p>A variety of lizards live in the area and surroundings. The Tarahumara frog lives in the oak and pine stands preferring moving water to pools. The southern extent of the Sonoran mountain kingsnake&#39;s range is the Chihuahuan desert into the mountains. Other snakes and frogs live in the mountains, and many species live in the western slopes.</p><br>
<p>Birds frequent the mountains, some as a migratory path and others as native species. The migratory birds often use the area to the west as an overwintering area, and migrate north along the western slopes. In the northern canyons birds may be divided into different habitats, or more specifically, the different types of forest, leading to differences in range by altitude. Some of this difference by altitude may even extend the range of some species, enabling tropical species to use the mountain valleys for migration. Bird species endemic to the Sierra Madre Occidental include tufted jay, the "gray-eared" subspecies of red warbler, eared quetzal, thick-billed parrot, and formerly included the imperial woodpecker, which now may be extinct.</p><br>
<p>The rivers and streams of the range contain some of the southernmost trout populations in North America. These populations may be native, although this is not universally accepted. Invasive fish compete with the native species which has been a cause of concern among researchers, along with concerns about the effects of logging on these species.</p><br>
<h3>Surroundings</h3><br>
<p>The Sonoran Desert is found in the northwestern foothills at 1,000 -. The Chihuahuan Desert is found to the northeast and east, the Meseta Central matorral and Central Mexican matorral to the southeast, and the Sinaloan dry forests to the west and southwest. These lower elevations are usually graded into by a stand of tropical deciduous forest, which has a large portion of flora made up of flowering plants and legumes. These flowering plants are mostly from the genus Bursera. The ecotone, made up of the tropical deciduous forest, is commonly sparsely populated, sometimes only by small stands of trees. It may be referred to as savanna.</p><br>
<h3>Preservation</h3><br>
<p>Preservation efforts in the modern day, include those from Edwin Bustillos. Other groups work to protect animal species in the area including Conservation International. Basaseachic Falls National Park is a national park in the mountains containing the highest waterfalls in the country.</p><br>
<p>Additionally there are reserves such as La Michilia in the southern Sierra Madre, or the Tutuaca reserve in western Chihuahua, which was established in 2000 under a new system of management.</p><br>
<h2>People and history</h2><br>
<p>The mountains are home to several indigenous nations speaking Uto-Aztecan languages, including the Tarahumara in the central portion of the range, the Huichol in the southern part of the range, and the Tepehuanes in the eastern slopes.</p><br>
<h3>Prehistory</h3><br>
<p>Archaic cultures are known to have inhabited the Sierra Madre along with the rest of the surrounding lands, but little is known of the culture, although it does vary between the northern and southern extremes of the range. The agrarian Chalchihuites Culture began as farming communities around the first century AD and remained small communities until 300 AD when new agricultural techniques caused a large growth in population until around 500 AD. This culture began to decline in the ninth century.</p><br>
<p>The Mogollon culture has been described in the northern foothills. Sites date the emergence of the culture to around 900 AD and abandonment to around 1000–1100 AD. During the period estimated for Mogollon abandonment, the Rio Sonora culture began agricultural developments along the Rio Sonora and rivers flowing into it. This culture produced pottery and lived in pit houses, until 1150 to 1200 when they began to construct surface dwellings. Construction of these houses ended around AD1550.</p><br>
<h3>Spanish Sierra Madre</h3><br>
<p>In 1554 Francisco de Ibarra came to Durango and began to settle the area. He would explore the western coast and cross the Sierra Madre in 1564. Early Spanish influence in the area came from the new silver mines, the first of which was established in 1567 at Santa Barbara. As sites opened for mining, missionaries came to the areas and had a strong presence by 1595. The first meeting with the Tarahumara came in 1607, when a missionary went up the valley to meet them. Opposition to the missionaries built up, leading to the Tepehuán Revolt. This revolt began in 1616 in the town of Santa Catarina de Tepehuanes in Durango and lasted for two years. The discovery of silver at Parral in 1631 led to the northern limit of settlement moving into Tarahumara lands.</p><br>
<p>The Jesuits renewed missionary activity in the 1630s, with a new program that increased in scope until around 1650. Tarahumara moved further into the mountains in order to escape the conditions. In 1648 a revolt arose, primarily among the Tarahumara. A drought caused a pair of revolutions in 1650 and 1652. The last major revolt began in March 1690 among the Tarahumara and ended in 1698. Demands from labor drafts increased in the 1720s, placing a new pressure on missions. Criticism of the Jesuits rose in the 1730s with complaints of Jesuit Commerce, which was established by mission stores. In 1767, Jesuits were expelled from New Spain, ending the mission program.</p><br>
<p>A new colonial official José de Gálvez came to New Spain and established new laws that caused a boom in silver mining activity in the 1770s. After the Apache faced heightened resistance to raiding from the Spanish in Chihuahuan, they moved down to the Sierra Madre in 1794. By 1800, raiding had essentially ended.</p><br>
<h3>Mexican Sierra Madre</h3><br>
<p>After leaving San Carlos in fall of 1881 Geronimo and other Apache moved to the mountains, From here they would raid Sonora and the surrounding land until general George Crook entered the mountains in 1883 to discuss Geronimo&#39;s return. Geronimo eventually surrendered in 1886.</p><br>
<h4>19th century</h4><br>
<p>Railroads came to the area starting in the 1880s and 1890s, which allowed many old mines in the region to reopen at a profit. Since most of the railroads were American, the foreign influence led to unrest among the people living in the mountains, causing the Tomochic rebellion in 1892. In addition to the railroads, canals were constructed in the 1890s in the Yaqui and Mayo river valleys. However, these canal projects failed due to the resistance that the natives of the valleys put up against the projects. Loggers began arriving in the mountains in the late 1800s. In response to the new industry, the Tarahumara moved further into the canyons.</p><br>
<h4>20th century</h4><br>
<p>The 1910 revolution began in Chihuahua and spread over the mountains throughout the winter of 1910–1911. Silver mines were forced to make payments to the rebels, but were allowed to continue operating. By 1919 the raids subsided and Villa returned peacefully to the foothills.</p><br>
<p>In order to construct irrigation projects in the lowlands below the valleys, irrigation projects were never completed in the Sonoran hills; instead, the Yaqui River was dammed in the 1930s.</p><br>
<p>The Sierra Madre Oriental is a mountain range in northeastern Mexico. The Sierra Madre Oriental is part of the American Cordillera, a chain of mountain ranges  that consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western "backbone" of North America, Central America, South America and Antarctica.</p><br>
<h2>Setting</h2><br>
<p>Spanning 1,000 km the Sierra Madre Oriental runs from the Rio Grande on the border between Coahuila and Texas south through Nuevo León, southwest Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, Querétaro, and Hidalgo to northern Puebla, where it joins with the east-west running Eje Volcánico Transversal of central Mexico. The northernmost are the Sierra del Burro and the Sierra del Carmen which reach the border with the United States at the Rio Grande. North of the Rio Grande, the range continues northwestward into Texas and beyond as the Davis and Guadalupe Ranges.</p><br>
<p>Mexico&#39;s Gulf Coastal Plain lies to the east of the range, between the mountains and the Gulf of Mexico coast. The Mexican Plateau, which averages 1,100 m in elevation, lies between the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Sierra Madre Occidental further west.</p><br>
<p>The climate of the Sierra Madre Oriental is drier than the rainforest areas further south.</p><br>
<h2>Highest major summits</h2><br>
<p>The highest point is Cerro San Rafael, at 3,700 m above sea level, is the highest point of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the state of Coahuila and the second in Mexico in isolation.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>This long range of tall mountains is noted for its abundant biodiversity and large number of endemic species of plants and wildlife, from the dry north to the wetter south. The Sierra Madre Oriental pine-oak forests are found at high elevations in the range (1,000 - above sea level). To the east, the Tamaulipan matorral occupies the range&#39;s lower slopes in Nuevo León and northern Tamaulipas, while the Veracruz moist forests cover the lower slopes of the central range, and the eastern slopes at the southern end of the range are home to the Veracruz montane forests. West of the range, the Mexican Plateau is home to deserts and xeric shrublands, including the Chihuahuan Desert to the north, the Meseta Central matorral on the central part of the plateau, and the Central Mexican matorral on the southern plateau.</p><br>
<p>Much of the wildlife can also be found in the Sierra Madre Occidental, which runs parallel to these mountains along western Mexico.</p><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>Pine-oak forests are dominated by several species of pine, such as Pinus nelsonii, P. cembroides, P. pseudostrobus, and P. arizonica, and oak, such as Quercus castanea and Q. affinis. The canopy of moist forests is dominated by trees up to 30 m in height, including Brosimum alicastrum, Manilkara zapota, Celtis monoica, Bursera simaruba, Dendropanax arboreus, and Sideroxylon capiri.</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<p>Birds of the forest include the Mexican chickadee, Montezuma quail, Strickland&#39;s woodpecker, zone-tailed hawk and several species of jay.</p><br>
<p>Pine-oak forests in Coahuila are part of the migration route of monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus).</p><br>
<h3>Threats and conservation</h3><br>
<p>Original habitats have been severely reduced by clearance for livestock grazing and logging over hundreds of years. Protected areas include the Cumbres de Monterrey National Park in Mexico and the Big Bend National Park in Texas. The El Cielo Biosphere in Tamaulipas preserves the northernmost tropical Veracruz moist forests in Mexico and extensive temperate cloud forests.</p><br>
<p>The Sierra Madre del Sur is a mountain range in southern Mexico, extending 1,000 km from southern Michoacán east through Guerrero, to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in eastern Oaxaca.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Sierra Madre del Sur joins with the Eje Volcánico Transversal (Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt) of central Mexico in northern Oaxaca, but is separated from this range further west by the valley of the Río Balsas and its tributary the Río Tepalcatepec.</p><br>
<p>The mountains&#39; highest point is 3,703 m, located at 17&deg;33&prime;N latitude, 100&deg;18&prime;W longitude in central Guerrero, and just one major highway crosses the range between Acapulco and Mexico City.</p><br>
<p>Although separated from the main part of the Sierra Madre del Sur by the deep canyon of the lower Río Balsas, the mountains of southern Michoacán around Coalcomán are usually considered part of the Sierra Madre del Sur.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The range is noted for its very high biodiversity and large number of endemic species.</p><br>
<p>The Sierra Madre del Sur pine-oak forests ecoregion occupies the higher reaches of the range. These forests are part of a chain of Mesoamerican pine-oak forests that stretch from the Southwestern United States to Costa Rica along the American Cordillera.</p><br>
<p>Lower elevations of the range are covered by tropical dry forests, ecoregions in the Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests Biome. The Jalisco dry forests occupy the western end of the range&#39;s Pacific slope. The Southern Pacific dry forests occupy most of the Pacific slope of the range, from Michoacan in the west through Guerrero and Oaxaca. The basin of the Balsas River, north of the Sierra, is home to the Balsas dry forests.</p><br>
<p>Oak Ridge Military Academy  is a college-preparatory military school in northwestern Guilford County, North Carolina. The academy is located within the town limits of Oak Ridge, North Carolina, which is named after the school. It is seven miles north of the Piedmont Triad International Airport and Interstate 40, and is approximately eight miles northwest of Greensboro, North Carolina&#39;s third-largest city.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Oak Ridge was established in 1852 by the Society of Friends (Quakers) as a "finishing school" for boys. From 1875 to 1914 Oak Ridge was led by two brothers, Professors J. Allen Holt and Martin Holt. Under their leadership the "Oak Ridge Male Institute" became one of the best prep schools in North Carolina, boasting business and humanities departments, literary and debating societies, and sports teams which regularly played Wake Forest College (University), the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and Trinity College (later Duke University) in football and baseball. Several of the academys baseball players went on to play in the major leagues. Despite the schools public name, women were admitted as students during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. During the First World War the Junior Reserve Officer Training Program (JROTC) was admitted to the campus. In 1929 Oak Ridge officially became an all-male military secondary school. From 1929-1967 Oak Ridge was a junior college as well as a military school. During the Second World War 127 of the academy&#39;s alumni were awarded a Purple Heart during the conflict, while another 27 alumni earned the Silver Star. In 1972 Oak Ridge became the first military high school in the United States to admit female cadets. The Academy is the third-oldest military school in the United States still in operation.</p><br>
<p>The Oak Ridge Military Academy Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983. The district encompasses 21 contributing buildings and 1 contributing structure. They include the Queen Anne style Oakhurst (1897) designed by Frank P. Milburn (1868-1926), the home of Martin H. Holt; Maple Glade (1905), the home of J. Allen Holt; the Oakland Park Hotel (now Benbow Hall, 1905); the old Donnell and Holt Store (now Cadet Hall, c. 1900); the Alumni Building (1914); Chapel (1914); Whitaker Dormitory, Holt Dormitory, and King Gymnasium (1920s); and Infirmary (1938).</p><br>
<h2>Oak Ridge Today</h2><br>
<p>Since 1972 Oak Ridge has been a private, coeducational, college-preparatory military boarding school. The Academy is divided into a middle school (grades 7-8), and a high school (grades 9-12). Oak Ridge is the official military school of North Carolina, as designated by the state legislature in 1991. Oak Ridge is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS), and it was first accredited by SACS in 1899. ORMA is also a member of the National Association of Independent Schools (NAIS), the North Carolina Association of Independent Schools (NCAIS), and the Association of Military Schools and Colleges of the United States (AMSCUS). It is the only active military school to have won the National High School Drill Team Championship (1996).</p><br>
<h2>Notable alumni</h2><br>
<p>Samuel Bason, Yanceyville banker and businessman and member of the North Carolina State Senate, 1948–1956</p><br>
<p>Dale Earnhardt Jr. (born 1974), race-car driver for NASCAR, has 26 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series wins and 246 Top-10 finishes.</p><br>
<p>Alvin Paul Kitchin (1908–1983), Democratic Party Congressman from North Carolina in the Eighty-fifth, Eighty-sixth, and Eighty-seventh Congresses (January 3, 1957 – January 3, 1963).</p><br>
<p>George Parrott (1887–1918), officer in the United States Navy during World War I, receiving the Navy Cross, later honored for his service by his namesake on the US Navy Destroyer USN Parrott (DD-218).</p><br>
<p>Kaw Lake is a reservoir completed in 1976 in the northern reaches of the USA state of Oklahoma, near Kaw City. It is approximately 8 mi east of Ponca City.</p><br>
<p>Kaw Dam is 9,466 ft long and 121 ft above the stream bed. The dam lies 654 mi above the mouth of the Arkansas River. The top of the flood control pool is 1,044.5 ft, while the normal operating level is 1,010 feet.</p><br>
<p>The Reservoir covers approximately 17,040 acres (69 km²). It is the seventh largest lake in Oklahoma by surface area. At normal levels, the lake holds 428,600 acre.ft of water, the ninth largest lake in capacity in Oklahoma. (See List of lakes in Oklahoma) It lies mostly in Kay County and partially in Osage County.</p><br>
<p>Kaw Dam was authorized by Congress in the Flood Control Act of 1962. Ground was broken for the dam on May 21, 1966. The original town of Kaw City was covered by the waters of Kaw Lake in 1975. The city was rebuilt about two miles west of the old site during the late 1960s. The dam was completed by the Corps of Engineers in May 1976. The cost of the dam and the lake was $111 million.</p><br>
<p>The Oklahoma Municipal Power Authority (OMPA), a state governmental agency created in 1981 to provide wholesale electricity to cities and towns in Oklahoma, purchased the substructure of the dam in July 1987 at a cost of $3.8 million and constructed a hydroelectric plant that was completed in September 1989 at a cost of $25 million. Kaw Hydroelectric generates approximately 104 gigawatt hours of energy annually. The generator is nominally rated at 25.6 megawatts at 76 ft of gross head with a maximum rating of 36.7 MVA. The plant at Kaw Dam provides power for over 35 municipal electrical systems in Oklahoma and southern Kansas. The project engineer for the Kaw Lake dam was Everette W. Woodham, Jr.</p><br>
<p>The Corps of Engineers and Camp McFadden offers camping on the west shore of Kaw Lake at Ponca Cove.</p><br>
<p>The southern tip of Kaw Lake is 8 mi east of Ponca City. Newkirk is 6 mi west of the upper end of the lake. Kaw City is located on a hill overlooking the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Camp McFadden</h2><br>
<p>Camp McFadden is an outdoor recreational area on over 250 acre overlooking the west side of Kaw Lake near Ponca City, Oklahoma. Camp McFadden was created in 1927 as a children&#39;s camp by Bill McFadden on the Kygar ranch. The camp includes high and low ropes courses, cabins, a lodge with full kitchen, outdoor activities, and RV and tent camping and is used for team building, reunions, youth and church camps, weddings, and getaways. Future plans include a volleyball court, disc golf, softball field, soccer field and archery range. Camp McFadden is a non-profit 501(c)(3).</p><br>
<p>The Stiperstones is a distinctive hill in the county of Shropshire, England. It is a quartzite ridge. The quartzite rock formed some 480 million years ago. During the last Ice Age the summit stood out above the glaciers and was subject to constant freezing and thawing which shattered the quartzite into a mass of jumbled scree surrounding several residual rocky tors. At 536 m above sea level it is the second-highest hill in the county, surpassed only by Brown Clee Hill . Stiperstones&#39; 8 km summit ridge is crowned by several rugged, jagged outcrops of rock silhouetted against the sky.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Stiperstones is noted for its tors of quartzite. The principal ones are named as follows, from north-east to south-west:</p><br>
<p>Shepherd&#39;s Rock</p><br>
<p>Devil&#39;s Chair</p><br>
<p>Manstone Rock</p><br>
<p>Cranberry Rock</p><br>
<p>Nipstone Rock</p><br>
<p>The Rock</p><br>
<p>Manstone Rock is the highest of these at 536 m, and is topped with a trig point. The Devil&#39;s Chair is the largest and best known.</p><br>
<p>The Stiperstones ridge is a good place to view the upland landscape of the Shropshire Hills, particularly the Long Mynd to the east, and also gives extensive views towards the North Shropshire plain and the hills of Mid Wales.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife and conservation</h2><br>
<p>The Stiperstones is a National Nature Reserve and Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). and is within the Shropshire Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. It is a haven for wildlife, with birds that are normally associated with upland areas present, including red grouse, Eurasian curlew, peregrine falcon and the rare ring ouzel.</p><br>
<p>Recently, a project called Back to Purple has commenced, to clear some of the hill of remaining plantations of coniferous and wooded areas, restoring the land to heather-based heath, with seasonal purple-flowering heather covering the summits around the tors and enhancing the views of the Stiperstones from the surrounding peaks and valleys. Back to Purple is managed by a partnership of Natural England, Forest Enterprise and the Shropshire Wildlife Trust. Their work has so far seen removal of thousands of pine trees and conifers, including the whole Gatten Plantation (still shown on OS maps) and the previously covered Nipstone Rock has emerged from hiding. Thousands of heather seedlings have been successfully planted to supplement natural regeneration. To balance this out and complement it further work below summit level has also aimed at restoring grasslands, rich in herbs, hay meadows, wet flushes which produce bog cotton, Heath Bedstraw and the rarer Mountain Pansy and natural woodlands.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural references</h2><br>
<p>The general area has a long history of lead mining, most notably during the Roman occupation of Britain. Several pigs of lead have been found nearby, and the tradition continued into Victorian times.</p><br>
<p>The area around the Stiperstones is rich in myths and folklore relating to the rocks of the Devils Chair. According to one legend, the ghost of Wild Edric, a Saxon earl who held lands that were confiscated after 1066 and successfully defied the Normans, for a time at least, rides the hills whenever England is threatened by invasion. The Stiperstones feature in the literary works of Mary Webb, who drew it as The Diafol (translated from Welsh, "Devils") Mountain in her novel The Golden Arrow (1916), of childrens author Malcolm Saville, and in a jazz work commissioned by Music at Leasowes Bank, written and performed by the Clark Tracey Quintet. D.H. Lawrence used the Stiperstones and the Devils Chair in particular as a setting for his novel St Mawr (1925).</p><br>
<p>The Half Man Half Biscuit album 90 Bisodol (Crimond) contains a track entitled "Descent of the Stiperstones".</p><br>
<h2>Bog Mine and Visitor Centre</h2><br>
<p>Until the early 20th century lead was mined at The Bog, just west of Stiperstones. The mine at The Bog and the adjacent Stiperstones outcrop were only viable because of a geological movement; over time the movement of the tectonic plates landed at this site, combined with the movement of the earth it crumpled the layers and the softest layers were then eroded away. After mining stopped, the undisturbed remnants provided a range of wildlife habitats: birds nest in the old buildings, bats roost in the old mine tunnels, and reservoirs and ponds are ideal for aquatic life.</p><br>
<p>The Bog Visitor Centre is the main facility for visitors to the Stiperstones. It is housed in the former village school and retains its old interior design. Activities include walking, with two main circular walks called Mucklewick Walk and Flenny Bank Walk and a variety of riding routes.</p><br>
<h2>2012 fire</h2><br>
<p>On 25 July 2012 part of the reserve was devastated by fire, said to have been a result of the sudden upturn in dry, hot weather coupled with the large amount of dry heather on the hills. More than 70 firemen battled the fire between 15.00 and 22.00 BST; smoke could be seen up to 10 miles away in the county town of Shrewsbury. Firefighters remained on site throughout the night because of the severity of the fire and the extent of the affected areas.</p><br>
<p>Haweswater is a reservoir in the English Lake District, built in the valley of Mardale in the county of Cumbria. The controversial construction of the Haweswater dam started in 1929, after Parliament passed an Act giving the Manchester Corporation permission to build the reservoir to supply water for Manchester. The decision caused public outcry, since the farming villages of Measand and Mardale Green would be flooded, with their inhabitants needing to be relocated. Also, many desired to maintain the picturesque valley in its existing state.</p><br>
<h2>Creation</h2><br>
<p>Originally, Haweswater was a natural lake about four kilometres long, nearly divided by a tongue of land at Measand; the two reaches of the lake were known as High Water and Low Water. The building of the dam raised the water level by 29 metres (95 feet) and created a reservoir six kilometres (four miles) long and around 600 metres (almost half a mile) wide. The dam wall measures 470 metres long and 27.5 metres high; at the time of construction it was considered to be cutting-edge technology as it was the worlds first hollow buttress dam, using 44 separate buttressed units joined by flexible joints. A parapet, 1.4 metres (56 inches) wide, runs the length of the dam and from this, tunnelled supplies can be seen entering the reservoir from the adjoining valleys of Heltondale and Swindale. When the reservoir is full, it holds 84 billion litres (18.6 billion gallons) of water. The reservoir is now owned by United Utilities PLC. It supplies about 25% of the North Wests water supply.</p><br>
<p>Before the valley was flooded in 1935, all the farms and dwellings of the villages of Mardale Green and Measand were demolished, as well as the centuries-old Dun Bull Inn at Mardale Green. The village church was dismantled and the stone used in constructing the dam; all the bodies in the churchyard were exhumed and re-buried at Shap. Today, when the water in the reservoir is low, the remains of the submerged village of Mardale Green can still be seen, including stone walls and the village bridge.</p><br>
<p>Manchester Corporation built a new road along the eastern side of the lake to replace the flooded highway lower in the valley, and the Haweswater Hotel was constructed midway down the length of the reservoir as a replacement for the Dun Bull. The road continues to the western end of Haweswater, to a car park, a popular starting point for a path to the surrounding fells of Harter Fell, Branstree and High Street.</p><br>
<p>Lake District writer and fell walker Alfred Wainwright had this to say on the construction of the Haweswater Dam in A Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells:</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<h3>Fish</h3><br>
<p>There is a population of schelly fish in the lake, believed to have lived there since the last Ice Age.</p><br>
<h3>RSPB Haweswater</h3><br>
<p>The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) first became involved in Haweswater because of the presence of golden eagles.</p><br>
<p>The organisation currently manages two farms in the area.</p><br>
<h4>Golden Eagle</h4><br>
<p>Until 2015 Haweswater was the only place in England where a golden eagle was resident. A pair of eagles first nested in the valley of Riggindale in 1969, and the male and female of the pairing changed several times over the years, during which sixteen chicks were produced. The female bird disappeared in April 2004, leaving the male alone.</p><br>
<p>There was an RSPB observation post in the valley for people wishing to see the eagle: the last sighting was in November 2015. It was reported that the 20-year old bird may have died of natural causes.</p><br>
<h4>Farming and conservation</h4><br>
<p>In 2012 the RSPB leased two farms from the landowner United Utilities. The aim is to combine the improvement of wildlife habitats and water quality with running a viable sheep farm.</p><br>
<p>Moorland and woodland habitats are being improved for birds as well as the rare small mountain ringlet butterfly. Measures include grip blocking, heather replanting, juniper woodland planting (especially in the ghylls).</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>"Possibly Hafrs lake, from a pers. n. such as ON Hafr or a postulated OE Hæfer, and water... wæter OE, water ModE the dominant term for lake&#39;..."</p><br>
<h2>Literary references</h2><br>
<p>Haweswater is a 2002 novel by British writer Sarah Hall, set in Mardale at the time of the building of the dam and flooding of the valley. It won the 2003 Commonwealth Writers&#39; Prize for a First Book. The novel was released in the United States as a paperback original in October 2006, by Harper Perennial.</p><br>
<p>Hawes Water is described in Anthony Trollope&#39;s novel Can You Forgive Her? (1864).</p><br>
<p>Haweswater is the lake that can be seen from the door of Crow Crag in the film Withnail and I although filming of the cottage itself was done elsewhere.</p><br>
<p>The Oratory stands to the north of Liverpool Cathedral in Merseyside, England. It was originally the mortuary chapel to St James Cemetery, and houses a collection of 19th-century sculpture and important funeral monuments as part of the Walker Art Gallery. It is a Grade I listed building in the National Heritage List for England.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Oratory was built in 1829, and used for funeral services before burials in the adjacent cemetery. It was designed by John Foster. When the cemetery closed, the building fell into disuse. In 1986 it came under the care of National Museums Liverpool, and is used to contain a collection of sculpture and statues.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The building is in the form of a Greek Doric temple. At each end is a portico with six columns. There are no windows and the building is lit from above. Inside, a coffered ceiling is supported by Ionic columns. Pollard and Pevsner consider this to be Foster&#39;s best surviving building. On 28 June 1952 it was designated as a Grade I listed building. In the National Heritage List for England it is described as "one of the purest monuments of the Greek Revival in England". Around the Oratory are cast iron railings and gate piers that have been listed at Grade II.</p><br>
<h2>Collection</h2><br>
<p>Inside the building is a collection of monuments, mainly Neoclassical reliefs, many of which were brought here from demolished buildings in the 1980s. These include a monument dated 1834 to the Nicholson family by Francis Chantrey, one to William Earle, who died in 1839, by John Gibson, to Dr William Stevenson, who died in 1853, by J. A. P. Macbride, to William Hammerton, who died in 1832, by Gibson, to William Ewart, who died in 1823, by Joseph Gott, to Emily Robinson, who died in 1829, by Gibson, and to Agnes Jones, who died in 1868, by Pietro Tenerani. There is also a statue of William Huskisson by Gibson that was formerly in the Custom House.</p><br>
<p>The Učka  is a mountain range in northwestern Croatia. It rises behind the Opatija riviera, on the eastern side of the Istrian peninsula.</p><br>
<p>It forms a single morphological unit together with the Ćićarija range which stretches from the Bay of Trieste to Rijeka. Učka is a limestone massif with numerous areas of karst, stretching for 20 km from the Poklon Pass (920 m) to Plomin Bay, and is between 4 and 9 km wide.</p><br>
<p>It differs from all the other coastal mountains in Croatia because of its abundant vegetation on the seaward side. Best known are the forests of sweet chestnuts in the area around Lovran.</p><br>
<p>Učka&#39;s highest peaks are considered nature reserves and memorial areas. The highest peak, Vojak, is located at 1396 meters above sea level. From it there is a magnificent view over the whole of Istria, the Bay of Trieste, the Julian Alps and the Adriatic islands, right down to Dugi Otok.</p><br>
<p>The subject of a degree of local folklore, Učka is visible from much of the peninsula and is snow-capped some months of the year. The town of Opatija (Abbazia) is said to have derived its popularity as a resort in Imperial Austria because it is located "in the shade" of Mt. Učka, which by legend shields it from the fierce Mediterranean heat in summertime.</p><br>
<p>The area of Učka is designated a nature park (park prirode), a kind of protected area in Croatia.</p><br>
<p>Učka was called "Ulcaria" in antiquity. It&#39;s been suggested that the name "Ulcaria" derives from the Indo-European root *wlkwos, meaning "wolf".</p><br>
<p>Putauaki, also known as Mount Edgecumbe, is a dacite volcanic cone in the Bay of Plenty Region of New Zealand. Located 50 km east of Rotorua and three kilometres east of Kawerau, it is the easternmost vent of the Okataina volcanic centre, within the Taupo Volcanic Zone. The mountain rises to 820 m above sea level, and is visible from the waters of the Bay of Plenty, 30 km to the north. Every year a King of the Mountain race is run on Putauaki as part of the international King of the Mountain series, and proceeds are donated to charity.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The last substantial volcanic eruption occurred around 300 BCE, producing a cubic kilometre of lava.</p><br>
<p>Captain James Cook named Pūtauaki "Mount Edgecumbe" on 2 November 1769, possibly in honour of John Edgecombe, the sergeant of marines on his vessel, the Endeavour.</p><br>
<p>Compare the nearby town of Edgecumbe.</p><br>
<p>The mountain&#39;s official name changed back to Putauaki in 1925, and the name sometimes appears with a macron (Pūtauaki).</p><br>
<p>The New Zealand government took part of the mountain from the Ngāti Awa people in the 1880s as part of a series of North Island land confiscations, supposedly for the purposes of military settlement. In a 1999 report the Waitangi Tribunal declared the confiscation illegal because there was no prospect of placing settlers on the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Legendary source of name</h2><br>
<p>Māori legend tells of a love affair that Pūtauaki had with Whakaari/White Island.</p><br>
<p>Another version of the legend is that Pūtauaki was lonely after losing a fight for Pīhanga (another mountain) so when he met Tarawera he decided to start a relationship with her. After raising a son and years of a troubled marriage, Pūtauaki cast his eye out towards the sea, where the very beautiful Whakaari was. The two would call out to each other at night while Tarawera slept. One night Pūtauaki could not contain his love any longer and decided to travel out to be with Whakaari. It is said that a mountain can only move once in their life and only at night so Pūtauaki had to travel across the land fast. Little did he know, his son had awoken and was following him. He heard the little whimper from his son and turned around. He tried to tell his son to stay with Tarawera but the little mountain would not leave his father. Then the sun rose and froze the two mountains where they were. When Tarawera awoke she saw that her husband had left and she started to weep, thus creating the Tarawera Falls and river. Until this day Tarawera still cries and Whakaari still calls out for her lover, who is frozen to the spot near Kawerau.</p><br>
<p>Tautra is an island in the municipality of Frosta in Nord-Trøndelag county, Norway. It is located in the Trondheimsfjord, just north of the city of Trondheim. The island is connected to the rest of Frosta by a 2.3 km long causeway bridge.</p><br>
<p>The island is located almost in the middle of the Trondheimsfjord, in the heartland of the Vikings. The remains of the medieval Tuterø Abbey, a Cistercian monastery, that was established in 1207 and dissolved in the Protestant Reformation. The monastery was placed strategically, very close to the Frostating&mdash;the central law-making institution in this region of Norway. In that context, the cistercienser monks of Tautra monastery became a part of the nation-building in Norway. In 2003, Queen Sonja laid the cornerstone of Tautra Abbey, a new Cistercian nunnery on the island.</p><br>
<p>A large part of the island and its surrounding water is designated as protected under the Ramsar Convention due to the rich bird life in the area. Now, there are organized professional guided tours for bird watching as well as about the nature and history on Tautra.</p><br>
<p>Minnesota Glacier is a broad glacier, about 40 nmi long and 5 nmi wide, flowing east through the Ellsworth Mountains in Antarctica, separating the Sentinel Range and the Heritage Range. It is nourished by ice from the plateau west of the mountains and by Nimitz Glacier and Splettstoesser Glacier, and merges into the larger Rutford Ice Stream at the eastern margin of the Ellsworth Mountains.</p><br>
<p>The glacier was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for the University of Minnesota at Minneapolis, which sent research parties to the Ellsworth Mountains in 1961–62, 1962–63 and 1963–64.</p><br>
<h2>Tributary glaciers</h2><br>
<p>* Splettstoesser Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Gowan Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Webster Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Nimitz Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Wessbecher Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Hudman Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Carey Glacier</p><br>
<p>Lough Gur  is a lake in County Limerick, Ireland between the towns of Herbertstown and Bruff. The lake forms a horseshoe shape at the base of Knockadoon Hill and some rugged elevated countryside. It is one of Ireland&#39;s most important archaeological sites. Humans have lived near Lough Gur since about 3000 BC and there are numerous megalithic remains there.</p><br>
<p>Grange stone circle (the largest stone circle in Ireland) and a dolmen are located near the lake. The remains of at least three crannogs are present, and remains of Stone Age houses have been unearthed (the house outlines are known as "The Spectacles"). A number of ring forts are found in the area, with one hill fort overlooking the lake. Some are Irish national monuments.</p><br>
<p>It is here that the 14th-century lord of Munster and poet Gearóid Iarla, votary of the Goddess Áine, is said to sleep in a cave and emerge at time of Ireland&#39;s need to gallop around the lake on his great silver-shod white horse.</p><br>
<p>A visitors&#39; centre is open beside Lough Gur, along with a car park and picnic area. A gradual shore-line is present at the visitor area, with a shallow section of lake reaching up to the maintained lawn. As a result, the area is often used for water sports, though motorised craft are banned on the lake.</p><br>
<p>There is a castle, or tower house (closed to visitors) near the entrance to the carpark. Named Bourchier&#39;s Castle after Sir George Bourchier, the son of the second Earl of Bath, it lies at the neck of the peninsula around which the lake washes. There is some other architecture dating from more recent times, with the ruins of an early Christian church by the road leading down to the lake. At the far end of the lake are the ruins of a Norman castle, Black Castle, which is reached by a hill-side walk along the east side of the lake. This is one of the keeps used during the Desmond Rebellions, and is probably the place where the Earl of Desmond secured his authority in 1573 after casting off his English apparel and donning Irish garments on his return to Munster from London.</p><br>
<p>Old Town San Diego State Historic Park, located in the Old Town neighborhood of San Diego, California, is a state protected historical park in San Diego. It commemorates the early days of the town of San Diego and includes many historic buildings from the period 1820 to 1870. The park was established in 1968. In 2005 and 2006, California State Parks listed Old Town San Diego as the most visited state park in California.</p><br>
<p>In 1969, the site was registered as California Historical Landmark #830. Then on September 3, 1971, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places as Old Town San Diego Historic District.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first European settlement on the West Coast of the present-day United States was the San Diego Presidio, a military outpost of Spanish California, founded by Gaspar de Portolà in 1769. Mission San Diego de Alcalá was founded by Father Junípero Serra the same year. The Presidio and Mission were originally built on a bluff above the San Diego River, Presidio Hill, which is now the site of the city-owned Presidio Park and which is immediately adjacent to Old Town State Historic Park.</p><br>
<p>After five years the Mission moved to a location several miles upriver at the present site of Mission San Diego de Alcalá. Presidio Hill remained the primary settlement for several decades because it was defensible against attack by European enemies or hostile Native Americans. As the need for defense decreased, settlers preferred to live at the base of the hill because of greater convenience. In the 1820s the town of San Diego grew up at the base of the bluff, at the site commemorated by Old Town San Diego State Historic Park. The Presidio was abandoned and fell into disrepair.</p><br>
<p>During the pueblo period following Mexican independence, the Old Town area was the commercial and governmental hub of the region, even though its population was never more than a few hundred. San Diego during this period is vividly described by Richard Henry Dana, Jr. in his classic book Two Years Before the Mast. In 1834 the Mexican government granted San Diego the status of a pueblo or chartered town; however, its pueblo status was revoked in 1838 due to declining population. One problem limiting the town&#39;s growth was its location far from navigable water. All imports and exports had to be brought ashore in Point Loma and carried several miles over the La Playa Trail to the town.</p><br>
<p>When California was admitted to the United States in 1850, San Diego (still largely limited to the Old Town area) was made the county seat of San Diego County, even though the town&#39;s population was only 650.</p><br>
<p>The Old Town area remained the heart of the city of San Diego until the 1860s, when a newcomer to San Diego named Alonzo Horton began to promote development at the site of present-day Downtown San Diego. Residents and businesses quickly abandoned "Old Town" for Hortons "New Town" because of New Towns proximity to shipping. In 1871 government records were moved from Old Town to a new county courthouse in New Town, and Downtown permanently eclipsed Old Town as the focal point of San Diego.</p><br>
<p>Old Town San Diego State Historic Park preserves and recreates Old Town as it existed during the Mexican and early American periods, from its settlement in 1821, through 1872 when it lost its dominant position to Downtown.</p><br>
<p>The Old Town area is a popular tourist destination, known especially for its Mexican restaurants. The state park itself hosts several eating establishments, and other restaurants and gift shops are found in the surrounding neighborhood.</p><br>
<h2>Attractions</h2><br>
<p>Five original adobes are part of the complex, which includes shops, restaurants and museums. Other historic buildings include a schoolhouse, a blacksmith shop, San Diego&#39;s first newspaper office, a cigar and pipe store, houses and gardens, and a stable with a carriage collection. There are also stores, with local artisans demonstrating their craft. There is no charge to enter the state park or any of its museums.</p><br>
<p>The museums include:</p><br>
<p>Casa de Estudillo, 1827 adobe house, a National Historic Landmark in its own right</p><br>
<p>Casa de Machado y Silvas, 1840s adobe</p><br>
<p>Casa de Machado y Stewart, a restored 19th century adobe</p><br>
<p>Black Hawk Smithy & Stable, which features blacksmith demonstrations</p><br>
<p>Colorado House, reconstructed 1850s hotel building that serves as the Wells Fargo History Museum, featuring a reconstructed 19th-century stage stop and telegraph office</p><br>
<p>First San Diego Courthouse, a reconstructed mid 19th century courthouse</p><br>
<p>Johnson House, a reconstructed mid 19th century office building later the house of George Alonzo Johnson.</p><br>
<p>Mason Street School, the first public school house in San Diego</p><br>
<p>Racine and Laramie, a reconstructed mid 19th century period tobacconist</p><br>
<p>San Diego Union Museum, a mid-19th century period newspaper office and print shop</p><br>
<p>Seeley Stables, a reconstructed mid 19th century stable and barns that feature horse-drawn buggies, wagons, carriages and western memorabilia</p><br>
<p>The Cosmopolitan Hotel, a 1870 restored hotel, still working as hotel and restaurant.</p><br>
<p>Living history demonstrations and free tours are regularly scheduled. Historical interpretation is primarily carried out by park employees and volunteers, and the Mexican Commercial corner is host to several locally based small businesses and artists.</p><br>
<h3>Adjacent attractions</h3><br>
<p>Adjacent to the state park is Heritage County Park, run by San Diego County. It houses seven buildings from the 1880s and 1890s which have been moved there from elsewhere in the city.</p><br>
<p>Also nearby is the Mormon Battalion Monument and Visitor Center. The city-owned Presidio Park, site of the original Presidio of San Diego, is on the adjacent hill.</p><br>
<p>The San Diego Sheriff&#39;s Museum and Educational Center is located in Old Town. It includes police equipment, uniforms, patrol car, helicopter, motorcycle, a jail cell and courtroom.</p><br>
<p>The Whaley House museum is also nearby.</p><br>
<h3>Recent changes</h3><br>
<p>The commercial facilities in Old Town State Park, such as restaurants and gift shops, are managed by outside contractors. For more than 30 years the largest single contractor was Bazaar del Mundo ("bazaar of the world"), run by San Diego businesswoman Diane Powers. In a controversial move, the state park agency did not renew her contract but awarded it to Plaza del Pasado ("plaza of the past"), run by Delaware North Companies, in 2005. The state&#39;s goal was to create a more authentic and historically correct understanding and appreciation of life and commerce in San Diego as it was from 1821 to 1872. However, revenue plunged under the new management. In spring 2009, Delaware North withdrew from its contract with the state and management changed hands to the Old Town Family Hospitality Corporation, headed by local restaurateur Chuck Ross. The commercial area is now called Fiesta de Reyes ("festival of the kings").</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The Old Town Transit Center serves the area with trolley, bus, Coaster, and occasional Amtrak service. There are free parking lots for the state park and for the transit center.</p><br>
<p>The Hughes Range is a high massive north-south trending mountain range in Antarctica, surmounted by six prominent summits, of which Mount Kaplan  is the highest. The range is located east of Canyon Glacier in the Queen Maud Mountains and extends 72 km from the confluence of Brandau and Keltie glaciers in the south, to the Giovinco Ice Piedmont in the north.</p><br>
<p>Discovered and photographed by Rear Admiral Byrd on the baselaying flight of November 18, 1929, and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names on the recommendation of Byrd for Charles Evans Hughes, U.S. secretary of state, U.S. chief justice, and adviser/counselor of Byrd.</p><br>
<h2>Key mountains</h2><br>
<p>*Mount Kaplan</p><br>
<p>*Mount Waterman () is a massive mountain, 3,880 m, standing 5 km NE of Mount Wexler. The mountain was discovered and photographed by Rear Admiral Byrd on the baselaying flight of November 18, 1929, and surveyed by A.P. Crary from 1957-1958. Named by Crary for Alan Tower Waterman, director of the National Science Foundation which directly supported U.S. Antarctic programs during and after the 1957-1958 International Geophysical Year program.</p><br>
<p>*Mount Wexler () is a prominent ice-free mountain, 4,025 m, standing 5 km north north west of Mount Kaplan, the highest peak in the Hughes Range. Discovered and photographed by Byrd on the baselaying flight of November 18, 1929, and surveyed by A.P. Crary from 1957-1958. Named by Crary for Harry Wexler, chief scientist for U.S. Antarctic during the 1957-1958 International Geophysical Year program.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>Geographical features include:</p><br>
<p>* Alan Tower Waterman</p><br>
<p>* Campbell Cliffs</p><br>
<p>* Canyon Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Good Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Haynes Table</p><br>
<p>* Lane Plateau</p><br>
<p>* Millington Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Mount Brennan</p><br>
<p>* Mount Bronk</p><br>
<p>* Mount Cartwright</p><br>
<p>* Mount Kaplan</p><br>
<p>* Mount Odishaw</p><br>
<p>* Pain Neve</p><br>
<p>* Perez Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Shanklin Glacier</p><br>
